REVISED 



1ETH CENTURY EDITION. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Chap. Copyright No. 

Shelt^fcL-Sk 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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the 



Trackman s Helper 



REVISED TWENTIETH CENTURY EDITION 



A BOOK OF INSTRUCTION 



FOR 



TRACK FOREMEN 



BY 

J. KINDBLAN 

Late R. M., C, M. & St. P. R'y 



REVISED BY 

F. A. SMITH, C. E. M . E. 
Editor Roadmaster and Foreman 

F. R. COATES 
Late R. M., N, Y., N. H & H. R'y 

JERRY SULLIYAN 
Div. R. M., C. O. & Q. R'y 



CHICAGO 

Roadmaster and Foreman, Publishers 

91-93 South Jefferson St. 

1900 



TWO COPIES H EG EI V ED, 

Library of C©iigrof% 
Offlo'o cf the 

MAY 1 2 1900 

Register of Copyrlgfefft 
SECOND COPY, 4, <-, . 




V >>s 






Copyright, 1894, by J. KindolaD 




Entered According to Act of Congress, in the Year 1900 

By B. S. WASSON & CO. 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington 




INDEX BY CHAPTERS. 



Page. 

CHAPTER I.— Construction 1-26 

CHAPTER II.— Spiking and Gaging 26-32 

CHAPTER III.— General Spring Work 32-44 

CHAPTER IV.— Drainage 44-55 

CHAPTER V.— Summer Track Work 55-69 

CHAPTER VI— Cutting Weeds 70-76 

CHAPTER VII.— Ballasting 76-98 

CHAPTER VIII.— Renewal of Rails 98-110 

CHAPTER IX. — Effects of the Wave Motion of 

Rail on Track 110-116 

CHAPTER X. — General Fall Track Work 1 16-123 

CHAPTER XL— Fences 123-131 

CHAPTER XII. — General Winter Work 131-142 

CHAPTER XIII.— Bucking Snow -. . . . 142-147 

CHAPTER XIV— Laying Out Curves 147-156 

CHAPTER XV.— Elevation of Curves 156-168 

CHAPTER XVI.— Lining Curves 168-179 

CHAPTER XVII.— Mountain Roads 179-208 

CHAPTER XVIII. — Frogs and Switches 208-240 

CHAPTER XIX. — Use and Care of Track Tools. . . .240-255 

CHAPTER XX.— Tie Plates 255-262 

CHAPTER XXL— Wrecking 262-270 

CHAPTER XXII. — General Instructions 270-312 

CHAPTER XXIII.— Miscellaneous 312-334 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 

A 

Page. 

Absent from Duty .284 

Accidents 272 

Accidents to Train 281 

Accounts of Track Material 292 

Adopt the Best Method 310 

Account of Ties for One Year 69 

A Day's Work 86 

A Dead Man 268 

Adzes 240 

Always Be Prepared 300 

Amount of Snow Report 134 

Average Life of Ties 68 

Average Life of Steel Rails 102 

Average Day's Work for One Man ; 129 

At Wrecks 282 

Axes 240 

Avoid Adzing in Maintenance 256 

B 

Bad Ties, Counting Them 65 

Ballast 76 

Ballasting 78 

Ballast Compression ill 

Ballast, Kinds of 93 

Battered Rails, Changing of 280 

Battered Switch Rails 290 

Bark, Remove the ....":... 67 

Bent Splices 291 

Bent Switch Rails 289 

Before Ballasting Track 77 

Boarding Accommodations 270 

Blasting Rock 194 

Bucking Snow 142 

Bolts That Are Too Tight 40 

Bridge Ties, Spiking ; \ . . 30 

Bridge Repairing 43 

Bridges, the Ends of 43 

Broken or Staggered Joints on Curves 154 

Broken Bolts 190 



INDEX. 

Page. 

Broken Chains, to Connect 265 

Broken Switches 265 

Broken Center Pins 267 

Brooms 241 

Bucking Snow, General Remarks 142 

Bolts 324 

C 

Car, the Steel 18, 19 

Car Truck, to Square a 263 

Cars Off on Ties 264 

Car Trucks in the Ditch 265 

Cattle Guards 21 

Change of Line 14 

Changes of Temperature 42 

Churns Ties 112 

Catch Sidings, Mountain Roads 204 

Change Stub Switch to Split Switch ■ 215 

Centrifugal Force 156 

Centripedal Force 157 

Cleaning the Right of Way 117 

Clear Water Passages 286 

Claw Bars 243 

Connections, to Make 17 

Cold Chisels 244 

Comply with the Rules 298 

Creeping of Track, to Stop It 16 

Crossing, a Common Wagon 23 

Creeping of Rails 115 

Creeping of Rails, Mountain Roads 191 

Cross-Over Tracks 235 

Cross-Over Tracks, Table of 237 

Crosscut Saws 244 

Culverts and Bridges 52 

Curving Rails 164 

Curves, Care of 171 

Curve, a Good 172 

Curve Easements 174 

Cutting Steel 304 

Clear Rail of Snow 185 

D 

Dangerous Cars on Curves 172 

Danger Signals, Distance to Set Out 295 

Danger Signals, Not Respected by Trains. 300 

Defects in Steel Rails 104 

Degree of Curve, Effect on Elevation 158 

Defective Lining 172 

Derailing Switches '. 230 

Densities ,,.,,,,,,, , 332 

¥ 



INDEX. 

Page. 
Ditching 44 

Ditches, Form of 45 

Ditches, Slope of 46 

Ditches, Grade of 47 

Ditches, Cleaning Out 48 

Ditching, a Rule for 49 

Distributing New Ties 63 

Difference in Length Between Inner and Outer Rail 154 

Discharges 270 

Different Heights of Rails 283 

Dressing Mud Track 37 

Dressing Ballasted Track 82 

Drainage of Track 50 

Do First What Needs to Be Done 308 

Duplicate Time Books 292 

Duties of Trackmen 

E 

Effect of Wheels on Curved Track 170 

Elevation of Curves 156 

Elevation of Curves, How to Calculate 160 

Embankments, Mountain Roads 196 

Emergency Rails 284 

Expansion and Contraction 8 

Expansion Table 9 

Estimating New Ties for Repairs 65 

Even or Broken Joints 103 

Expansion, Leave Correct 107 

Expansion 189 

Examining Track 278 

Extra Work 280 

Expansion Blocks 283 

Expansion at Switches 287 

Extra Men 285 

Execute Promptly .> 306 

F 

Fences, Board 126 

Fences, Building of 123 

Fence Tables 127 

Finish as You Go 63 

Fire, Damage by 307 

Fire, Protect Against 306 

Flagging 296, 188 

Flanging Track 135 

Following Trains 272 

Foreman, on Duty 309 

Frogs 221 

Frogs, Laying in Track 222 

Frogs, Length of 223 



INDEX. 

Page. 

Frog, How to Ascertain Kind Needed 238 

Foremen Should Know Degree of Curve 13 

Q 

Gage for Track Laying 20 

Gages, Track 244 

Gaging Track 27 

Get Acquainted with Your Section . 285 

General Repairs 131 

General Remarks, Elevation of Curves 156 

Geometrical Properties of Curves 147 

Go Over the Track 273 

Grading Cuts 53 

Gravel for One Mile of Track 88 

Gravel Pits 90 

Gravel Versus Weeds 92 

Gravel Plow, to Put Back on Train 266 

Gravity, Acceleration of 333 

Guard Rails 224 

Good Men at the Front 6 

Good Side Tracks 15 

H 

Hand Cars 241 

Hand Cars and Tool Houses 301 

Handling Hand Cars and Push Cars 187 

Handling of Ballast 96 

Hammers, Spike 246 

Haul Out Material from Cuts 121 

Have the Tools Ready 2 

Heat and Cold 8 

Heaved Bridges and Culverts 134 

High Raising 87 

High Places 81 

Highway Crossings, Standard 24 

Highway Crossing, Ties at 66 

Hints to Section Foreman 321 

How to Relay Steel Rails 99 

How to Work at a Wreck 269 

Have the Track Ready 87 

Holds Rail Vertical 257 

How to Do Work 309 

I 

Ice, Clear Rails of 185 

Importance of Having Tools Ready 253 

Information for Track Men, Printed 166 

Injured Signals 298 

Injuries to the Rail 1 13 

Injuries to Road Bed 113 

VII 



INDEX. 

Page. 

Inspection, Track 317 

Interlocked Switches, Care of 313 

Improper Elevation 171 

Instructions, General 270 

J 

Jacks, Track 274 

Joints, Low 277 

Joints, Per Mile 327 

Joints, Ties Under 64 

Joint, Ties, Locating 7 

Joint Ties, Selecting 63 

K 

Keep Men's Time Correctly 292 

Keep Ties Square Across Track 30 

L 

Labor, A Day's 324 

Land Slides 194 

Lanterns 246 

Laying New Steel 98 

Laying Out Curves 147 

Laying Out Curves by the Eye 149 

Laying Out Spur Track Curves 151 

Laying Out Switches 211 

Leaving Hand Car on Track 303 

Length of Runs 145 

Lessening Weed Cutting 72 

Lever, The Spirit 275 

Liability to Derailment 171 

Line, a Good Necessary 20 

Lining Bars 245 

Lining Curves 168 

Lining New Track 18 

Line of Bridges 42 

Lining Old Track 38 

Line of Disconnected Tracks 291 

Lips on Stub Switches 289 

Loaning, Hand Cars, Tools, Etc 303 

Locomotives, Two 144 

Long Sections Ballasted with Earth 35 

Longer Rails 319 

Look Out for Trains 300 

Lumber Table 328 

M 

Make Worst Places Safe First 64 

Making Snow Fences 185 

Material, Be Careful of 307 

Material, Transferring , , xi 



INDEX. 



Measures and Weights, Table 329 

Melting Points 331 

Mensuration Rule .• 330 

Mixed Length of Rails 11 

Minor Tools 251 

Mountain Roads . 179 

Movements of Rail no 

Moving Rail of Stub Switches 290 

Moving Rail Ties Under 290 

Middle Ordinates for Curving Rails 166 

Maintains Track in Surface 257 

Maintain Gage 257 

N 

Narrow Embankments 119 

Neat Stations 286 

New Men Working 286 

Nut Locks 42 

o 

Obstructing the Track , 297 

Oil the Rail 264 

Old Ties 68 

Omit Tie Bedding 5 

One Method of Lining 168 

On the Ground 262 

Opening Ditches and Culverts 137 

Ordering Tools or Materials 291 

Other Rules for Elevation 163 

Overhauling Track in Spring 32 

P 

Parallel Tracks 238 

Place for Tools, the 304 

Points About Weed Cutting 70 

Preparing Drifts 146 

Printed Forms 293 

Prompt Reply, a 285 

Protect Fences 283 

Protection Against Snow 184 

Push Cars, Handling Them 187 

Pulling on a Chain or Rope 267 

Protect Your Men 137 

R 

Radius of Curve, To Find 150 

Rail Sections 105 

Rails, Laying the 7 

Rails, on Curves , 189 



INDEX. 

Page. 

Rails per Mile, Table 326 

Rails, Short Pieces 17 

Rails, Surface Bent 276 

Rails, Different Height 283 

Raise Both Sides 80 

Raise Up the Wires 273 

Raises the Sparks 

Raising Track 78 

Raising Up Sags 118 

Reduced Speed 171 

Refuse Ballast in Cuts 86 

Remedy Too Wide Openings at Joints 12I 

Renewing Ties 57, 61 

Remove Bad Ties When Ballasting 66 

Removing Old Track Bolts ; . . ■ 41 

Removing Hand Cars from Crossings 302 

Repair Rail, Scarcity of 279 

Repairing T-i ack 35 

Replace Signals 298 

Reports, Section Foreman's 294 

Requirements of New Track. . . . : 1 

Respiking Ties 29 

Ride Over Your Section 271 

Roundhouse Tracks 234 

Rotary Plow and Flanger 186 

Responsible to Whom 312 . 

S 

Sag, Track Laying in 14 

Scythes 248 

Section Records .322 

Shimming Track 132 

Short Rail for Curves 12 

Shovels 247 

Sliding a Car on Tie 266 

Side Track, to Reach With a Reversed Curve 232 

Signals, Always Keep With You 296 

Signals, Note of ■ 297 

Signals, Look Out for 297 

Steam Hose, a Piece of 145 

Snow in Cuts 135 

Snow on Side Tracks 135 

Snow Walls 138 

Snow Fences 138 

Solid Centers 81 

Soft Ground, to Turn a Car on 265 

Spiking, Hints About 26 

Spikes, Pulling 26 

Spikes, Where to Drive 27 



INDEX. 

Page. 

Spikes, Loose 29 

Spikes 32S 

Spikes, Number of 325 

Speed, Effect on Elevation 158 

Split Switches 209 

Spur Tracks 239 

Stock Killed, Report 306 

Stop Signals 297 

Standard, If There Is No 225 

Steel Car, the 18, 19 

Surfacing Gang, a 6 

Summer Track Work, General 55 

Surface Levels 77 

Switch Stands 284 

Switch Ties, to Cut Proper Length 229 

Switch Timbers 227 

T 

Table for Point Leads 219 

Table for Stub Switches 217 

Tamping Bars 249 

Tamping Switch Ties 229 

Tape Lines 250 

Telegraph Office Report 301 

Tenacity 330 

The Proper Way • 286 

Three-Throw Switches *. 229 

Temperatures, Extremes of 273 

Tie Bedding 4 

Tidy Tool Houses '. 240 

Time Card and Rules. 296 

Ties, Different Varieties of 304 

Ties, Per Mile 326 

Throwing Switches 302 

Tools, Hame Them Ready 2 

Tools for Weed Cutting 74 

Touching Up 116 

Tons of Rails Per Mile, Rule of 326 

Track Laying 1 

Tracy-Laying Machines 2 

Track-Laying Tools and Materials 3 

Track Not Full Spiked 30 

Track Ties 57 

Track Work on Mountain Roads 182 

Track Flags 250 

Track Levels 250 

Track Tools, Shipping of 294 

Track Bolts , , 324 

XI 



INDEX. 

Page. 

Trespassers 283 

Tunnels, Work in 205 

Turnouts 208 

Turnouts from Curves 231 

Twisted Ties 66 

Track Tools, List of 22 

Tie Plates 255 

Tie Plate, a Good. 259 

U 

Uniform Tamping 82 

Use Rule with Common Sense 162 

Useful Numbers 329 

V 
Velocity of Sound \ 331 

W 

Wagon Crossings, Locating 23 

Washouts 192, 33 ' 

Water Supply 186 

Water Stations 282 

Wears the Angle Bar. , 114 

Wears the Bolts 114 

Wearing of Spikes '. .115 

Wears the Rails..... 115 

Weeds on Heavy Grades 71 

Weight of Fence Nails 128 

Weight of Fence Wire 129 

Weights and Measures, Table 329 

Wide Openings at Joints, to Remedy 121 

Wide Spaces 65 

Widening Gage Around Curves 198 

Without an Engine 264 

When to Ballast 78 

Whistling Posts and Signs, Location of 298 

Work Train Service 312 

Woven Wire Fences 130 

Wreck, How to Work at a 269 

Wrecked Engines 268 

Wrecked Cars Loaded 267 

Wrecking 262 

Wrenches, Track 251 

Where to Spike the Plank 23 

Weed Cutting, to Lessen the .,,,.,.,,,,, 72 

XII 



INDEX. 

Y 

Page. 

Yards, Ballast in 305 

Yards, Level Tracks in 89 

Yard, Look Over the 288 

Yard Tracks, -How to Level Them 8q 



PREFACE. 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER is one of the Pio- 
neer Track Books of America and of the world, because 
in other countries no books of the kind were published 
when the work was first issued. Mr. Kindelan, the 
veteran trackman, and author of the original work, 
made the following statement in his preface : 

"That there is a necessity existing for such a book 
is admitted by every good trackman, and I have re- 
ceived many letters from prominent trackmen, and 
other railroad officers throughout the United States, 
who all agree in the opinion expressed, that all track- 
men should be supplied with a book of instructions, 
which would advance their knowledge of theoretical 
and practical details of Construction and Track Main- 
tenance quicker than such knowledge can be gained 
by actual experience, this would fit them for doing 
all work in a practical manner, with less inconvenience 
to themselves and in a way that would be more satis- 
•factory to the company. * * * * * * * * * 

"After a certain amount of time has elapsed since a 
man has entered the service,- his natural aptitude for 
gathering knowledge along with what instructions he 
receives, will make him a good average trackman, and 
familiarize him with the rules of the road and his 
other duties, but unless he has had the benefit of a wide 
field of experience and a very thorough training, he 
seldom becomes so expert as to be able to do in a 



PERFACE. 

proper manner many kinds of work with which he is 
unacquainted, but which he may be called upon to do 
at any time. 

"To help fill this want of the Trackman, the writer 
published the first edition of this book, which I hope 
has proved to be what its name indicates, a Helper for 
Trackmen. 

"I fully realized how difficult a task it would be to 
write a book which would be accepted by even a ma- 
jority of the Trackmen of the country, but as I have 
had a practical education, from the shovel up, I thought 
I could offer something that would at least assist 
the ambitious young trackman seeking knowledge of 
his profession. I deemed it my duty, also, to put into 
book form the practical knowledge I possessed, if for 
no other reason than to show the importance of the 
Track, in relation to the other Railroad Departments, 
and assist in bringing more uniformity into the methods 
of doing track work on the different railroads." 

These words were written a number of years ago, 
before Trackmen were accustomed to anything 
at all in the way of reading matter relating 
to their calling, but the expressions of the practical 
and veteran Trackman have proven true in every in- 
stance. The "necessity existing" soon secured a stand- 
ing for the work in sales amountig to 20,000 copies, 
and this army of readers have all added their testimony 
to the fact that the book is, in truth, a "Helper for 
Trackmen." 

Since the original work was prepared, many im- 
provements and changes have been made in the Main- 
tenance of Way Department, and a revision of the 
■work was necessary in order to eliminate many matters 
now obsolete and to bring the work thoroughly up to 



PREFACE. 

date. The new Twentieth Century Edition of the 
Trackman's Helper, revised and improved in every 
way, making it a book for North, South, East and West, 
is herewith presented. The subject is so extensive that 
a work of this kind might be easily enlarged to 1,000 
pages, but it was necessary to confine the work to 
something near its original scope, which required a 
careful selection of the most practical topics of interest 
to Trackmen, and their condensation in plain language 
and in convenient form, with a handy index and para- 
graph number. 

The revision has been under the supervision of F. A. 
Smith, C. E. M. E. Editor, Roadmaster and Foreman ; 
F. R. Coates, late Roadmaster, New York, New Haven 
and Hartford Ry., and Jerry Sullivan, Division Road- 
master, Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf Ry. 

The publishers, in presenting the new work, can offer 
no better sentiment than that expressed by Mr. Kinde- 
lan, in his preface to the Third Edition : 

"If by the publication of this book I have laid one 
more stone in the arch which would span the gulf of 
prejudice and support all good Trackmen in a com- 
mon effort for the welfare of each other, and the 
upbuilding of their profession, I have accomplished 
enough, and I sincerely hope that what little I have 
added to the track literature now in existence may 
only be the beginning of something better and more 
worthy." 

The Publishers. 



CHAPTER I.— CONSTRUCTION. 

REQUIREMENT OF NEW TRACK. 

1. A Good railroad should be complete in all re- 
spects ; track should be full bolted, full spiked, well 
ballasted, surfaced, lined, and gaged, and nothing 
omitted in its construction which would contribute 
toward making it a perfect and safe track. A poor 
track no more deserves to be called a railroad than a 
shanty does to be called a house, and trackmen who 
are in the habit of doing poor work with the means 
at hand to do better, never learn how to do good 
work. 

TRACK LAYING. 

2. The best dirt ballasted track can be made when 
laying it, by bedding the ties to a level surface on top 
before putting on the rails. To lay track this way, 
the company's engineers must first set level stakes 
by which to bed the ties, and these stakes should be 
close enough together for a sixteen-foot straight edge 
to reach from one stake to the next. To have the en- 
gineer set level stakes so close together that a straight 
edge will reach from one stake to the other is contrary 
to the common practice, but it is a much better way 
in so much that the increased labor of the engineer 
is fully compensated for in having the whole tie bed- 
ding gang under the control of one foreman. This 
method also does away with the necessity of using 
sight boards and dividing up the men to sight in the 



2 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

lead ties between level stakes fifty or one hundred feet 
apart. The work is also more accurate when finished, 
if the straight edge can reach a level given with the 
engineer's instrument, than it would be, if the levels 
were sighted in by the average track laborer. 
TRACK-LAYING MACHINES. 

3. Track-laying machines have been used to a con- 
siderable extent when building new roads during re- 
cent years. When track is laid with them the ties and 
rails are run out along the material cars to the front, 
on rollers in some cases, and in others an endless belt 
carries out the material along the sides of the cars. 
Only one or two rails of track are laid at a time, and 
partly spiked, then the train moves up and the same 
operation is performed again. Economy in the force 
of men necessary to lay track with these machines, 
together with the saving effected by not having 10 
haul the ties by team to the front, are the chief claims 
put forward in their favor. But the amount of track 
laid each day must always be limited to what can be 
bolted and spiked safe for trains, between the forward 
moves of the machine, seldom exceeding a mile and 
a half in a day, and oftener one-third less. In a good 
country to lay track where ties can be hauled ahead 
by team, and men are plenty, much better results can 
be obtained without track-laying machines, if it is 
desired to rush the track laying. 

HAVE TOOLS READY. 

4. Every good trackman knows the tools which 
his men should use, and before starting out to lay 
track on a new road the foreman should make requisi- 
tion for all the necessary tools. These tools should all 
be loaded into a car and shipped direct to the point 
where work is to be commenced. Everything should 



CONSTRUCTION. 



be in readiness to make a good beginning, before the 
men are brought upon the ground. Many awkward 
and serious delays have been caused by the foreman 
in charge neglecting to see to the arrangements in time 
for working his men properly. 

5. TRACK-LAYING TOOLS AND MATERIAL. 

Hand Cars 1 

Steel Cars 3 

Push Cars 2 

Shovels, It. R 150 

Picks 50 

Lining Bars 12 

Claw Bars 12 

Tamping Bars 12 

Nippiug Bars 21 

Cold Chisels 24 

Rail Punches 6 

Chopping Axes G 

Hand Axes G 

Adze Handles G 

Axe Handles 

Maul Handles 36 

Red Flags 32 

Sledges, 1G pounds each. . 3 

Grind Stones 1 

Track VVrenches 24 

Iron Tongs, pairs 3 

Rail Forks 6 

Expansion Shims 200 

Switch Locks , 6 

Rail Drills 2 

Torpedoes, dozens 4 

Spiking Hammers 42 

Bush Scythes and Snaths, 

each 3 

Hand Saws 6 

Adzes G 

Track Gages ] 2 

Spirit Levels 6 

Tape Lines 6 



Nail Hammers 3 

Monkey Wrenches 3 

Lanterns, Red 3 

Lanterns, White 3 

Water Pails 6 

Tin Dippers 6 

Oil Cans 2 

Oilers 3 

Gallons of Oil 2 

Nails 1 keg 10 penny 

Nails 1 keg, 20, 40, 60 

Pick Handles 24 

Track Jacks 4 

Rail Benders 2 

Covered Water Barrels ... 2 

Track Levers 2 

Chalk Lines 2 

Files 6 

Crosscut Saws 2 

Curving Hooks 2 

Post-hole Diggers 2 

1%-inch rope 300 feet 

Tie Poles, 30 feet long. . . 2 

Tie Line, 1,000 feet long. . 1 

Tie Square G 

Set Double Harness 1 

Set Single Harness 1 

Set Double and Single 

Trees 1 

Wagons 1 

Scrapers 1 

Horses or Mules 2 

Tool Boxes 2 



The above list of tools will do to supply an average 
gang of ioo tracklayers with a surplus to equip extra 



4 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

men if required, or replace tools out of repair or 
broken, until supplies ordered can be gotten to the 
front. The accommodations for tracklaying should be 
about as follows : 

One supply and office car. 

One kitchen car. 

Two dining cars. 

Four sleeping cars. 

Where track laying is done at a long distance from 
the base of supplies a blacksmith with forge and tools 
should accompany the outfit. 

TIE BEDDING. 

6. The work of tie bedding consists in placing a 
straight edge in a level position over the top of loose 
ties lying on the grade, and bringing up each tie to a 
uniform surface under the straight edge, just as it 
should lie in track under the rails. Thin ties should 
have dirt or ballast thrown under them and be settled 
to the correct level. The bed under thick ties should 
be dug out and the dirt removed sufficiently to bring 
the tie down to the level of the other ties. One straight 
edge should be provided for every two men of the tie 
bedding gang. When it is intended to ballast the track 
with dirt from the embankment, the thick ties should 
always be bedded before laying the rails, for the reason 
that the grade is seldom or never a smooth surface to 
receive the, ties ; moreover, the ties, no matter how 
well selected, are of different thickness, and it is well 
known that light rails, laid jon loose ties on a poor 
grade, will be kinked and damaged considerably by 
trains running over the track before it is surfaced up 
smooth and level. Another good point in favor of tie 
bedding is that the rails can be laid much faster than 
over loose ties and the spiking can be done better and 
with less labor. 



CONSTRUCTION. 5 

Engineers should call the attention of the contrac- 
tor to inequalities or poor surface of grade. It is much 
easier and cheaper to make a good grade with teams 
and scrapers than with '.hovels. In fact, the boss track- 
layer cannot spare the men necessary to do this fast 
enough to keep ahead of the rails. An engineer who 
would accept a poor grade from a contractor — well, 
he might not be a thief, but that is the way to enrich 
a contractor and impoverish a railroad company. The 
grade through cuts should be closely watched to see 
that the earth is removed down to grade. If this is 
done there will be no hump in the. track and the cost 
and delay incidental to bedding should be done very 
sparingly, because the grade will settle in a short 
time so that the track will have to be raised. 
OMIT THE TIE BEDDING. 

7. If it is intended to ballast track with cinders, 
gravel or stone, as fast as it is laid, the tie bedding 
should be omitted in order to have the full width of 
the grade to deposit the ballast upon, but at the same 
time the ballasting should be kept finished up close 
behind the tracklayers to obviate the danger of spoil- 
ing rails. 

Very few trackmen realize the necessity or make 
much effort to protect the rails from being kinked or 
surface bent, when laying track, and a large part of 
new track throughout the United States bears evi- 
dence of their carelessness. 

All railroad companies are more liberal when con- 
structing than they are when the road is in operation, 
and if a company lay their own track the man in 
charge of the work should see that it is done well, even 
if the cost is greater. It pays in the end. When the 



6 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

work of constructing a railroad is poorly done it is 
never finished afterwards. 

GOOD MEN AT THE FRONT. 

8. When building new road the man in charge of 
the track laying should endeavor to secure good, sober 
men to work at spiking and laying the rails, because 
on the front men, in a great measure, depends the 
amount of track laid every day. The spikers and iron- 
men should be paid better wages than the other men, 
not alone on account of the work, but to encourage 
them to do their best, and also, that you may secure 
picked men to fill their places whenever needed. All 
the men at tracklaying should be well organized ; each 
man should have his particular work to perform. The 
men should not be allowed to work promiscously, 
changing from one place to another. One foreman 
should have charge of the ironmen, another of the 
spikers, and a third of the surfacing crew, all subject 
to the foreman tracklayer. It is poor economy to try 
to lay track without any of the three foremen men- 
tioned, as is sometimes done, because, although a good 
tracklayer may be able to oversee a considerable num- 
ber of men, he cannot look after the details of the work 
in its different branches, and give it the required atten- 
tion, without the assistance of these foremen except 
where the work is done with a small gang of men. 

A SURFACING GANG. 

9. When laying track it is always best to keep at 
least a small surfacing crew behind to recruit from, if 
you are short of men at the front, and any extra men 
at the front should be put to surfacing. 

The amount of supplies taken out each day should 
be in proportion to the number of men you are work- 
ing, and only enough should be taken out at one time 



CONSTRUCTION. 7 

for a good half day's work, because much more than 
that amount would only be in the way and delay the 
work. Where the ties for a new track are hauled out 
along the grade by teams it is always best to let the 
work out by contract. This will save the necessity 
of hiring and watching the teamsters and insure the 
work being done without delay. 

LOCATING JOINT TIES. 

10. Every tracklayer should have two men to carry 
a measuring pole the correct length of a rail for locat- 
ing the joint ties, ahead of the rails. These men should 
also space the ties on each side of the joint wherever 
necessary. They could also adze twisted ties and bed 
down ties which were too high. The joint ties should 
not be located very far ahead of the rails, because there 
is liable to be variation in the distances, and the meas- 
urements taken with the pole should be corrected from 
the end of the rails occasionally. The track laying is 
delayed and the ties are seldom as well spaced when 
this work is left to the spikers. 

LAYING THE RAILS. 

ii. A construction foreman should see that no new 
rails be laid in a new track before all kinks and crooked 
places in the rails are straightened. It is a common 
fault of track foremen when in a hurry to throw down 
all rails just as it comes to the front, regardless of any 
kinks that may have been put in the rails while in 
transit, or in dumping them off cars. Many light- 
weight rails are irreparably damaged in this way, and 
after such rails are put in a track they are seldom, if 
ever, made perfect again, as hardly ever section fore- 
men have the necessary amount of help, or spare time 
to do what could have been done in a very short time 
before the rails were laid. The foreman tracklayer 



8 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

should see that the rails are laid so that no joint will 
come within ten feet of the end of any bridge or cattle 
guard, where it is possible to avoid doing so. This 
can be done easily if the track is laid with even joints, 
but not so well with broken joints. 

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. 

12. Track foremen, when laying rails, should be 
very particular to give the proper space at the joints 
for expansion. Avoid leaving the joints too close in 
cold weather, or too much open in warm weather, 
either of which causes much trouble afterwards. 

As soon as the weather becomes warm, rails which 
were laid in the track with very close joints, during 
colder weather, begin to expand and increase in length, 
as the heat increases, until the opening between the 
ends of the rails is entirely closed. After this, as there 
is no further room for expansion, the track is forced 
out of line, and kinks are put in the shoulder of light- 
weight rails. This extreme expansion is very danger- 
ous for fast trains, and in many cases has been the 
cause of wrecks. The effect of expansion of the rails 
is most noticeable on the line of track which is only 
partially ballasted and filled between the ties, or where 
track has been laid down without any particular 
ballast. 

HEAT AND COLD. 

13. Contraction is a shrinking or shortening up 
of the rails, and is caused by cold weather. The con- 
traction of the rails increases with the severity of the 
cold, and by this process, the opening in the joint be- 
tween the rails is enlarged. 

Sometimes in the winter the contraction is so great 
that where the rails were not properly laid, the track 
is torn apart, joint splices are broken, and openings 



CONSTRUCTION. 9 

between the rails are increased from three inches to 
a foot, rendering the track extremely dangerous for 
trains, unless discovered in time by the trackmen and 
repaired. 

Too much space at the joints also affects the wear- 
ing qualities of the rails, the opening at the joint being 
so large that the car wheels batter their ends, and 
they wear out and have to be taken out of service 
much sooner than rails of the same quality if laid with 
the proper spacing on another part of the road. 

About the first of June and December of each year 
the bolts should be loosened and the rails allowed to 
adjust themselves to the change in temperature. In 
summer only the bolts on open joints and in winter 
those on closed joints need be loosened. After loosen- 
ing the bolts the angle bars should be tapped with a 
hammer to loosen the rust between angle bar and rail, 
and after the rails have moved to their proper place 
the bolts should be retightened. 

EXPANSION TABLE. 

14. The coefficient of expansion for steel is .0000065 
of its length for each degree. For a rail 30 feet long 
and a difference of 100 degrees, or from 10 degrees 
below zero to 90 degrees, the amount to allow would 
be one-quarter inch. To take up the flow of the rail, 
add one-eighth to this, and the total amount to allow is 
three-eighths. Leave the following expansion when 
laying track between the ends of the rails at any tem- 
perature: 
Temperature. Amount of Expansion. 

At 90 degrees above zero .1-16 of an inch 

At 70 degrees above zero 1-8 of an inch 

At 50 degrees above zero 3-16 of an inch 

At 30 degrees above zero 1-4 of an inch 

At 10 degrees above zero .5-16 of an inch 

At 10 degrees below zero 3-8 of an inch 



10 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

A steel rail expands or contracts i-iooooo of a 
length under a load of one ton (2,240 pounds) per 
square inch. This is also its expansion under a rise 
of 15 degrees of temperature; consequently, if a 30- 
foot rail is subjected to a rise or fall of 15 degrees, it 
exerts a force of one ton per square inch if resisted. 
With this fact in mind, is it any wonder that so many 
joints buckle and bolts break when the proper amount 
of attention has not been given the expansion ? 

The amount of expansion stated should not be 
exceeded in any case. It is not unusual to find track 
with many joints wide open during the hottest days 
in summer. When track is laid with the temperature 
at 90 degrees above zero, instead of using 1-16-inch ex- 
pansion shims at each joint use one-eighth at every 
other joint, or if no one-eighth inch shims are carried, 
one-quarter inch shims may be used by putting them 
at every third or fourth joint, as the case may require, 
and lay the other joints tight. 

Expansion shims should be made of narrow, flat 
iron or steeL and bent so that one end would rest on 
top of the rail when in place. The shim could thus be 
easily removed and used again, after a piece of track 
was laid, and all the bolts then tightened up on the 
joint fastenings. 

A ten-penny common steel nail, if bent at right 
angles, makes a cheap and handy expansion shim 
when no others are provided. It may be used at almost 
any temperature above the freezing point, by reversing 
the end and flattening the head of the nail. Expansion 
shims should not be allowed to remain between the 
ends of the rails after a piece of track is laid and the 
joint fastenings have been made secure. 

Care should be taken when laying old rails, to make 



CONSTRUCTION. 11 

the same allowance for expansion as when laying new 
rails. 

TRANSFERRING MATERIAL. 

15. Owing to the scarcity of flat cars on railroads, 
box cars or stock cars are often used to ship rails to 
the front when track laying. All rails which come in 
this manner have to be transferred to flat cars at cer- 
tain points, in order to facilitate handling them before 
laying at the front. The transfer of rails from box or 
stock cars can best be accomplished by switching 
empty flat cars between the loaded cars and attaching 
framed rollers to the end doors of the loaded cars to 
run the rails out upon. A hollow iron roller can also 
be used to place under the rail within the loaded car, 
and one upon the flat car where it receives the rail. If 
this is done a large quantity of rails can be transferred 
in a day with a small crew of men. The transfer fore- 
man should keep posted as to the quantity and differ- 
ent kinds of material wanted at the front, and he should 
make every effort to forward the supplies so as not to 
delay the track laying. He should also keep an ac- 
curate and detailed account of all track material, or 
other supplies which passes through his hands. 

MIXED LENGTHS OF RAILS. 

16. When it is possible to avoid it mixed lengths 
of rails should not be used when laying track. The 
cost of repairing such a track is always greater than 
a track laid with rails of a uniform length, and when 
the rails begin to wear out there is a large amount of 
material wasted and time lost by replacing the bat- 
tered rails from rails of a different length for repairing. 
When tracklayers find it necessary to get rid of a mixed 
lot of'rails, the best place to lay them is in a side track, 
matching all rails of an equal length or height. When 



12 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

there is not room for mixed rails in side tracks, lay 
them in the main track close to or at a station ; there 
the track is safer, and the section man can do the 
necessary repairing or changing- of rails at less cost, 
and to better advantage than out on his section ; and 
when thus laid, keep the same lengths together. 
SHORT RAILS FOR CURVES. 

17. When laying track where curves are frequent, 
diagrams should be prepared, as shown in Fig. 1, to 
avoid confusion in forwarding material at the front 
and laying the track. 

"SreosaosmA* : _ /r c \ 30 S i j6 c j .io_C_'< Z4-3A 






22° 30 .! 25*30 






i : |' i si § |i 
si 8 li c &i |< 

FIG. 1. 

The line A B represents the center line, showing a 
6-degree curve to left, followed by a tangent of 452 
feet, thence a 5-degree curve to right compounding 
into an 8-degree curve. The line is to be laid with 
30-foot rails, using 29^-foot rails on the inside of curves 
to square joints. Each curve is marked with the de- 
gree and the total angle. Below the line A B is given 
the lengths of the tangents and the curves in feet, also 
the station numbers of the beginning and end of curve. 

Above the line A B is given the number of rails for 
each tangent, and the number of 30-foot and 29^-foot 
rails for each curve. One 294-foot rail is laid for each 
6 degrees of angle in the curve. The compound curve 
contains a total of 48 degrees of angle, requiring'eight 
29^-foot rails to square the joints. At the end of each 



CONSTRUCTION. 13 

day's work the station of the end of track should be 
marked on the diagram. 

In the material yard, with the aid of the diagram, 
the foreman will know just what kind of material to 
forward each day. On the side of each loaded car the 
foreman should nail a piece of board or shingle, upon 
which is plainly written the kind of material on the 
car, as : 

40 S. Rails. 

17 C Rails for 6-degree Lt. Sta., 753. 
3 C Rails 29^-ft. for 6-degree Lt. Sta., 753. 

The straight rails should be separated from the 
curved with pieces of board. When laying with a 
track-laying machine it is more convenient to put the 
294-foot rails on the car of trimmings. 

A diagram is given to the foreman in charge of 
bending rails. The ordinates of the different curves 
should be marked on his sheet. 

At the front the foreman in charge of the steel crew 
will know at a glance how many 29-l-foot rails are to 
be laid on the inside of each curve. He should en- 
deavor to lay these at regular intervals throughout the 
curve. If track is laid with even joints on the tangents 
and broken joints on curve, the difference in length 
between the inner and outer rails of the curve should 
be marked on the diagram. The rail should be cut in 
the material yard and the length of each piece and 
the station of the curve to be plainly marked on it so 
as not to delay work at the front. 

FOREMEN SHOULD KNOW THE DEGREE. 

18. Foremen in charge of curving rails should 
know beforehand the degree of each curve and the 
number of rails wanted for it, so as to have no delay 
in getting them to the front when called for. 



14 THE TRACKMAN'^ HELPER. 

WHEN LAID IN A SAG. 

19. When a foreman lays a piece of track in a sag 
which he soon expects to raise up to a level surface, 
he can raise the track if the sag is not too deep with- 
out cutting the rails, by leaving the joints open as 
much as possible when laying the rails by keeping 
the bolts in the splices not too tight. Otherwise he 
will have to cut some of the lengths of the track be- 
cause the track in a sag is longer than when brought 
up to the level surface. 

CHANGE OF LINE. 

20. In cases where a general change of line is made 
by moving a curve track inward several feet the fore- 
man should have his men dig out all the material 
which is used for filling between the ties for the full 
distance covered by the new change in track line, so 
that the ties will not crowd against each other or in- 
jure the surface by raising up on top of the ballast. 
Before commencing to line the track, take out and set 
aside one rail length of the track in the middle of the 
curve. Then loosen up the track with a jack or lever 
bars and blocks. Start lining gangs at one or both 
ends of the curve and work toward the middle, mov- 
ing the track toward the new line 12 to 20 inches, or 
as far as it can be pulled conveniently with one lining, 
without kinking the rails or splices. Continue thus 
until the opening in the middle of the curve is reached. 
Then go back and commence again as near the end of 
the curve as may be necessary, and work toward the 
middle as before. Repeat this process until the inside 
rail of the track has been moved beyond the center 
stakes for the new line, bringing in both ends of the 
curve alike. Then while part of the men are spacing 
and squaring the ties, and throwing in surfacing ma- 



CONSTRUCTION. 15 

terial, etc., go over the ground with a handy gang of 
three or four men, and line the track to the center 
stakes. Do not cut the rails to fill up the opening at 
the middle of the curve until all the lining of the track 
is finished. Otherwise the rails may not fit after all 
the lining is completed. Lining from the ends of the 
curve toward the middle always forces the track to 
move forward toward the opening. By moving the 
track a little past the center stakes with the first lining, 
and then throwing it outward to its place when finish- 
ing the work, prevents buckling or jamming joints 
together and makes the track less difficult to handle. 
The latter operation stretches the track, and opens up 
joints that might otherwise have proved too tight for 
conveniently maintaining a good line in the future. 

When the change of line is so great that the new 
line is some distance clear of the old track, it is some- 
times a better policy to lay a new section of track 
throughout, than to try to move the old piece of track 
to the place with lining bars. 

GOOD SIDE TRACKS. 

21. It is a bad habit of some track foremen when 
putting in a side track to allow the work to be done 
in a careless manner. The track is surfaced poorly 
or not at all ; rail joints are not square, splices are 
loose on the joints, with one and two bolts in them ; 
ties are under the track in all .shapes, at some places 
one foot apart, at others three or four feet. In fact, 
everything seems to be done as slovenly as possible, 
because it is only a side track. This should not be the 
case. All work on side tracks should be as good as 
on the main track, for several reasons ; first, that train 
men may be able to do their work without accident to 
themselves or the company's property ; next, that 
grain men and others may be able to move a car when 



16 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

loading or unloading without having to call on every 
passing freight train to stop and switch it for them, 
and lastly, because a good, smooth side track will save 
burning so much coal, since an engine can switch a 
greater number of cars more easily than on a rough 
track. The little extra expense of making a good track, 
when laying it, is well repaid in the course of time. 

TO STOP TRACK FROM CREEPING. 

22. The best method to hold steel and to keep it 
from creeping down grades or from running ahead 
enough to throw track out of line or kink the rails, is 
to use the slot spikes in the splices. This can be done 
only where angle bar splices are used on joints. The 
advantage gained by putting the slot spikes in the 
splices instead of in the flange of the rail is that al- 
though the joint is held firmly in place, the slot spikes 
do not interfere with the contraction or expansion of 
the rails, and if the track is spliced and laid in this way 
and given the proper allowance for expansion, it will 
never give any trouble. Angle bars intended for use 
on heavy grades should have a base wide enough to 
allow holes being punched for spikes. Slots will in 
time become rounded or worn so much that spikes slip 
out and do not hold. This is impossible with angle 
bars having holes in them. They also keep joints in 
better gauge, especially on curves, because the rail 
must move the inside as well as the outside spikes be- 
fore joint can spread. 

The ties should be firmly tamped and rails properly 
spiked. Also if necessary a pair of angle bars can be 
cut into four pieces, thus making four angle bars with 
one hole in each. The bases of these can be drawn 
out so as to admit of a spike slot. Then by drilling a 
hole in the middle of each rail, where creeping occurs, 



CONSTRUCTION. 17 

these short angle bars or stops can be placed on and 
firmly spiked to the tie. If considered necessary ties 
can be cut in two and placed upright in the ground, 
between the ends of the track ties, so as to be flush 
with the top of the tie. In preventing creeping one 
fact should be borne in mind ; that is, if one rail is 
anchored, always do the same to the opposite rail, as 
then the full side of the tie is offered as resistance ; 
whereas, if only one end is held in place the other end 
will move and thus the full effect will not be secured. 

The ballast is to a certain extent an anchorage ; 
also spiking has its effect. On double track roads the 
outside spike should be on the receiving side of the 
tie ; on the inside, on the leaving. On single track 
roads the grades and traffic should control the placing 
of the spikes. 

MAKING CONNECTIONS. 

23. At any time when laying rails on main track 
or side track, never make a connection with a piece 
of rail shorter than ten feet. When you see that only 
three or four feet of rail is necessary to connect the 
ends of a piece of track, add the three or four feet to 
the length of the rail adjoining the space, cut two 
pieces of rail half the length of the total number of feet, 
and put them into the track to make the connection. 

SHORT PIECES OF RAIL. 

24. A piece of rail less than ten feet in length is of 
the most value to a railroad company when returned to 
the rolling mill. Except in cases where it is abso- 
lutely necessary to use short pieces of rail as at the 
ends of frogs, in the round house tracks, etc., the extra 
expense necessary to prepare them so that they will be 
perfectly safe in track (safety is the main point to be-' 
considered), will offset the difference in value between 



18 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

old and new rails of equal lengths. A track foreman 
can generally avoid making a short connection, espe- 
cially when laying old rails, by selecting lengths, of 
rail that will leave him 15, 20 or 25 feet of space for 
connecting, as any of the lengths mentioned can be cut 
from a good 24, 26 or 30 feet rail that has been bat- 
tered on the end. 

THE STEEL CAR. 

25. The men selected to work on the steel car in 
laying track should be strong, healthy, active men, all 
of whom speak and understand plain English. Men 
of different nationalities, no matter how good physic- 
ally, should not be allowed to work together on a steel 
car. Where such is the case accidents are of common 
occurrence and the work does not progress as well as 
when the kind of men first spoken of are employed to 
do the work. The foreman on a steel car should be a 
man of energy and experience, when possible to pro- 
cure such a one, and he should be equal, if not superior, 
to his men physically and intellectually. 

LINING NEW TRACK. 

26. When a new road is first laid the engineers put 
stakes along where the center of the track should be. 
These stakes are generally set about 100 feet apart, and 
a tack is driven in the top of each stake to show the 
correct center of the track. The man whose business 
it is to line the rails behind the tracklayers, always 
carries with him a small light wooden gage with the 
center marked on it The manner of lining new track 
is as follows: The trackliner places his gage on top 
of the rails across the track over one of the center 
stakes- His men then lift the track, to. one side, until 
the center. mark on the. gage.is directly over the. tack 
in. -the top. of the. center stake between the rails. This 
part of the track is .then -allowed to .remain in .that.posi- 



CONSTRUCTION. 19 

tion and should not be moved again. After the track- 
liner has put the rails in position at two or three center 
stakes, he proceeds with his men to put the rails be- 
tween these points in a true line with them, which com- 
pletes the work. Any carelessness on the part of the 
trackliner in the matter of putting the rails in their 
proper place at the center stakes is apt to cause trouble 
when the track has been surfaced, as it is often difficult 
for the trackman in charge of a section to get a per- 
fect line on his track at places where the first track- 
liner left swings in it, because numbers of the center 
stakes are lost or moved out of position, during the 
work of tracklaying. 

ONE OR MORE STEEL CARS. 

27. When it is not intended to lay more than one 
mile of track per day, one crew and one steel car is 
sufficient. When it is necessary to lay from one and 
a half to three miles of track, two or more steel cars 
can be used to get material to the front, and a team 
of horses should be used after the second car is put 
on, to pull the load out and the empty car back. The 
regular steel car crew should never be taken from the 
front when two or three cars are used. They should 
only be required to bring back the empty car to meet 
the load, and turn the empty upon its side to let the 
load pass it. It is poor economy for tracklayers, when 
rushing the work, to have the steel car crew come back 
one-half mile or more to load steel. 

HOW CONSTRUCTED. 

28. The steel car should be light, strong and com- 
pact, and made of the best material, so that it can carry 
a heavy load and at the same time be easily handled 
by the crew working it'. The wheels' tread should be 
at least eight inches widej so that the car can pass over 



20 THE TRACKMAN'iS HELPER. 

loose and uneven gaged track without leaving the rails. 
A load of rails with the car off the track often causes 
considerable delay. 

TRACK LAYING GAGE. 

29. The gage used to hold the rails in place ahead 
of the steel car should be made of one solid piece of 
iron with a lip in projection to come down on both 
sides of the ball of each rail of track. This kind of a 
gage serves the double purpose of gaging the track, 
and of holding the loose rails in place until the car has 
passed over them. 

When spiking new track the foreman should see 
that the gage is not placed too far away from the joint 
when the spike is being driven, otherwise if the loose 
end of the rail is bowed in or out the gage will be 
wrong. 

A GOOD LINE NECESSARY. 

30. After a railroad track has been properly sur- 
faced the rails should be put in a perfectly true line. 
Few track foremen seem to give this part of the track 
work the attention it deserves, and even on first-class 
railroads it is seldom that anything like perfection in 
the line of track is attained. Of what avail is all the 
other work done on a piece of track if it be not in good 
line and gage ? The surface may be perfectly level and 
smooth, but cars will ride badly over it at high rates of 
speed. The wheel following the crooked line and bad 
gage, cause the cars to dance from one side to the 
other almost as badly as if the surface of the track were 
rough, especially on curves, and a bad line or gage 
will soon make a track rough, because the heavy roll- 
ing loads cause the wheel flanges to strike the rails with 
great force, where the line is irregular. 

There is no excuse for bad line or gage on track, 



CONSTRUCTION. 21 

especially where it is ballasted, or foremen raise it up 
to surface it. All that is required is a little skill, a good, 
careful eye, and force enough to put the rails in place, 
all of which ought readily to be found on any section ; 
while as a matter of fact, some of the track we see, 
looks as if all three of the requisites mentioned were 
almost entirely lacking. 

A well-lined section is the best indication that the 
foreman in charge of it thoroughly understands his 
business, because a good line cannot long be main- 
tained without also having a good surface on the 
track. In order to preserve the line of track as orig- 
inally located, and to enable the foreman to keep a 
true line on the rails, permanent stone monuments 
should be set in the ground at convenient distances 
along the center of the grade, of a double track rail- 
road, or on one side of a single track, and the top of 
each monument should be chiseled square or capped 
with iron or steel so that a gage may be tried at any 
time and show the correct distance between the monu- 
ment and the nearest rail of either of the tracks. These 
monuments could also be made the standard from 
which to take levels when surfacing track, or when 
ballasting track out of a face, by having the grade 
levels marked and numbered on each monument ; any 
of the figures on one monument designating the same 
level on all of them. 

CATTLE GUARDS. 

31. For a good, safe cattle guard an iron or steel 
surface cattle guard, which can be put in without ex- 
cavating under the track to a greater depth than the 
bottom of the ties, and which will at the same time 
prevent cattle or other animals from coming upon or 
crossing it is just what the railroads need, and are 
gradually replacing all the old pit cattle guards. The 



22 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



chief objections to the common timber cattle guards are 
that those which are constructed by excavating a hole 
in the ground and spiking the rails along the top of a 
single stringer over this hole makes a trap for cattle 
to fall into, and that if a car wheel or truck is derailed 
before reaching one of them there is liable to be a very 
disastrous wreck. 

Cattle guards constructed on the same principle 
with track or bridge ties along their tops only lessen 
the danger to some extent, because the ties, if not very 
close together, are liable to break under the wheels, 
and if cattle attempt to cross such a cattle guard, which 
is often the case, they sometimes fall through, and in 
this position they are liable to wreck a train, and can- 
not extricate themselves without assistance. 

An iron surface cattle guard can be put in and main- 
tained at a less cost to the railroad companies than one 
made of timber and constructed in the usual way, and 
its use must result in economy, in keeping a good, 
smooth track at points where the pit guard would be 
heaved up by frost in the winter and required the ser- 
vice of section men to shim and repair it very fre- 
quently. 

LIST OF TRACK TOOLS. 

32. List of track tools for a section of five miles, 

foreman and crew of five men : 

Adzes 2 

Axe 1 

Hand Axe 1 

Tool Box 1 

Water Bucket 1 

Brooms 3 

Claw Bars 2 

Lining Bars 4 

Raising Bar 1 

Tamping Bars G 

Chisels , 6 



Hatchet 1 

Lanterns, White 2 

Lanterns, Red 2 

Lantern Globe, White ... 1 

Level, Track 1 

Level, Boards 1 

Levels, Blocks 2 

Clay Picks 6 

Tamping Picks 6 

Pad Locks 2 

Rail Tongs ... ... 2 



CONSTRUCTION. 



23 



Hand Car 1 

Push Car 1 

Oil Cans 3 

Water Can 1 

Chairs 2 

Dippers 2 

Ratchet Drill 1 

Drills 6 

Red Flags 2 

Green Flags 2 

Track Gages 2 

Grind Stone 1 

Grub Hoes and Mattock. . 3 

Pick Handles 6 

Axe Handle 1 

Adze Handles - 2 

Hammer Handles 6 

Spike Hammers 4 

Sledge Hammers 1 

Napping Hammer 1 



Scythes 6 

Scythe Snaths 6 

Scythe Stones 6 

Shovels G 

Scoop Shovels 4 

Single Rail Truck 1 

Hand Saws 1 

Crosscut Saw 1 

Rail Saw for every 50 mis. 1 

Jim Crow for every 50 mis. 1 

Torpedoes 12 

Track Jack 1 

Tape Line 1 

Track Lever 1 

Tie Square 1 

Wheel Barrows 2 

Track Wrenches 4 

Monkey Wrench 1 

Water Keg 1 



LOCATING WAGON CROSSINGS. 

33. In States where the law is such that the public 
has a right to use the section lines as public highways, 
it is a good policy for those in charge of building new 
railroads to have all the necessary grading done at such 
points as there is a probability of locating grade cross- 
ings in the near future. The work can be done with 
less expense when the roadbed is in course of con- 
struction than at any other time. 

WHERE TO SPIKE THE PLANK. 

34. When locating public or private plank cross- 
ings on their sections, foremen should, whenever it is 
possible, spike down the plank at the center of rail, 
because if the crossing is spiked down where a rail joint 
comes in the track, when the joint gets low it cannot 
be raised up to surface without removing the plank to 

-do it, and for this reason is often neglected. 

A COMMON PLANK WAGON CROSSING. 

35. Seven 3xio-inch planks will do for a common 



24 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



public wagon crossing. One plank is to be used on 
each side of the track outside and spiked close up to the 
rails. Five plank are to be used in the center of the 
track, leaving a space for the wheel flanges next to 
the rails on the inside. About five inches of the ends 
of the crossing planks should be dressed off with the 
adze, leaving a slanting surface, which will enable any 
objects which strike the end of the plank to pass over 
them without tearing the plank out of place. 

For private use a cheap and efficient crossing may 
be made by cutting two ordinary 1 6-foot plank in two 




1 1 I II i i I'H 



FIG. 2. 

and these four pieces, each 8 feet long, will make a 
good farm crossing. Some may object that such a 
crossing is not wide enough, but as the tread or gage 
of a farm wagon does not usually exceed 4 feet 10 
inches, such an objection carries no weight. By the 
use of short plank, rail joints may be avoided in the 
crossing, and the great saving effected in plank is 
worth consideration. 

A STANDARD HIGHWAY CROSSING. 
36. A standard highway crossing on the C, M. & 
St. P. Ry., is made by using one plank along the out- 
side of the track rail and only one plank along the 



CONSTRUCTION. 25 

inside, and at each end between the inside planks is 
spiked a short piece of plank forming a kind of box, 
which is the filled with earth, broken stone or cinders. 
(See. Fig-. 2.) This kind of crossing where it can be 
used saves considerable lumber and is both durable and 
economical. The C, R. I. & P. R. R., and some other 
roads use a track rail in some of the crossings, instead 
of the inside plank. The rail is laid on its side, with 
its head against the web of the track rail, thus forming 
a channel for the wheel flanges to run in. It is bolted 
to the track rail near each end and its ends are then 
turned in towards the center of the track and all the 
space between both sides is then filled up level with 
broken stone or other material. This style of grade 
crossing has some advantage in being so easily kept 
in repair and not requiring the services of trackmen 
to clean the ice and snow from the flange way in the 
winter season. But the item of first cost is consider- 
ably more than other crossings on account of the large 
amount of metal in the rail. 

It would undoubtedly pay to have a rail specially 
manufactured of a much lighter and slightly different 
pattern which would accomplish the same results in 
every way as well as a track rail and thus remove the 
chief objection to this style of grade crossing which 
could be made the best and most economical of any 
of those here mentioned. 



CHAPTER II.— SPIKING AND GAGING. 

HINTS ABOUT SPIKING. 

i. Track should always be kept full spiked and in 
perfect gage. In order to keep it in perfect gage one 
of the standard width should be used, and when track 
is spliced the gage should be square across, about six 
or eight inches ahead of the tie spiked, and remain be- 
tween the rails until the tie is spiked. The outside spike 
should not be allowed to draw the rail too tight on the 
gage or to be driven loosely, either of which will. affect 
the width of the track after the gage is lifted. When 
gage is tight, start inside spike first, when loose, the 
outside spike first. Bad gaging detracts from the looks 
of an otherwise good track, makes track easier to knock 
out of line and down below surface, and is also danger- 
ous and the direct cause of numerous wrecks. To be 
driven properly a spike should rest upon its point al- 
most perpendicularly, when receiving the first stroke, 
which if delivered right, will leave the spike perfectly 
straight up and down. The spiker should then try to 
deliver each stroke in such a manner as not to draw 
the spike in any direction until about the last stroke, 
which should draw the head of the spike toward the rail 
and down to the flange, both at the same time. Care 
should be taken never to strike the last blow on a spike 
too hard, as this either cracks the head or breaks it off, 
rendering the spike in either case useless. 
PULLING SPIKES. 

2. To draw a spike in frosty weather, or to draw 



SPIKING AND GAGING. 27 

a spike out of an oak tie at any time of year, tap the 
spike down on the head with a spike maul once or 
twice, before attempting to pull it out of the tie with 
the claw bar. In most cases there will then be no dif- 
ficulty in pulling the spike without breaking it. Tap- 
ping the spike down with the maul loosens its hold 
on the wood of the tie and makes it easier to remove. 
If an opposite course is pursued and trackmen try to 
pull spikes without doing as above directed, a great 
number of the spikes will break off under the head. 
WHERE TO DRIVE SPIKES. 

3. The spikes should be driven about two and one- 
half inches from the edge of a track tie. Both inside 
spikes should be driven on one edge of a tie and both 
outside spikes on the other edge in order to prevent the 
tie slewing and also to assist in holding the rail from 
creeping. The spikes take a better hold in the wood of 
a tie, and support the tie under the rail better when 
driven thus. An oak tie will split open on the ends in 
frosty weather if the spikes are driven in the center of 
the tie. The tie, so split, will rot much quicker, and 
will have to be removed from the track sooner than the 
tie which remains whole. Another "reason why the 
track spikes should be driven in the sides of the ties 
is because the wood in the center of most ties is softer 
and may be decayed, while as a rule, the sides of the 
ties are sound timber. 

GAGING TRACK. 

4. Section foremen should make an effort to gage 
all of the track in their charge once a year if possible. 
Early in the winter, and before general track work 
begins in the spring are the best times to gage track, 
because at such times, on northern railroads, there is 
generally less of other work to be done than during 



28 THE TRACKMAN'S HELREH. 

the balance of the year. A section well gaged once 
can easily be kept in that condition ever after. 

Before commencing to gage track out of a face, 
the foreman should get all the necessary tools in good 
condition, have ready two spike mauls, two claw bars 
for pulling spikes, a good sharp adze for dressing a 
surface for the rail on the ties, two standard gages, one 
for gaging the track and one for testing the gage of 
track before pulling the spikes ; also a good supply 
of track spikes and wooden plugs to put in the old 
spike holes. 

If there are any very bad places on the section, be- 
gin gaging these first, but if the average is the same 
throughout, it is best to work from one or both ends 
continuously, marking every evening where you leave 
off work for the day. 

When you arrive on the ground to commence work, 
take out all short kinks on the line side and spike the 
rails to the line, and have your men knock down all 
loose spikes on that side of the track before bringing 
the opposite side to gage. 

The foreman should take one gage and test all the 
track ahead of the men gaging, and mark all ties 
where spikes have to be pulled. Keep only enough 
spikes pulled on the gage side of the track to make 
it handy to adjust the rail to place ahead of the gage, 
and have the track always ready to close up for trains 
to pass. 

Have one of the men move the rails to place ahead 
of the gage with a lining bar, and do not try to draw 
it with the spike more than a quarter of an inch. 

Do not spoil or waste any of the old spikes that are 
fit to be used a second time, and if they are oily or 
greasy throw a little dirt or sand on the head of the 
spike when you tack it in the tie : This will prevent 



SPIKING AND GAGING. 29 

the spike maul from slipping off the spike when driving 
it. Measure the gage and be sure it is of the correct 
length, four feet eight and one-half inches, and if it 
is an iron gage and the end lugs touch the joint fasten- 
ings, grind or file them off, tapering so that nothing 
but the rail will touch the gage when placed across the 
track. 

If the gage of track on a section is not very bad, a 
foreman and two laborers will do an average of one- 
sixth of a mile per day. Gaging and spike-lining a 
section of track well during the winter, besides im- 
proving the track at that time, will enable the foreman 
to put a first-class line on the whole section during the 
following summer, and will materially lighten his other 
work. 

LOOSE SPIKES. 

5. A section foreman should be particular to keep 
all loose spikes on his section driven down in the ties, 
and tight against the rails. The majority of the fore- 
men are not so careful in this respect as they should 
be. Loose spikes in soft ties, where track is not level, 
leave the rail at that place liable to be turned over and 
cause a wreck. You cannot keep track in good line 
with loose spikes, and green men, tamping loose ties 
when surfacing, lose considerable time holding up the 
ties. These often spring up the center of the rail, spoil- 
ing the surface and making it necessary to go over the 
work a second time. 

RESPIKING TIES. 

6. Whenever it is necessary to pull the spikes out 
of ties in the track, changing rails or at other repair 
work, and you find that the old spike holes in the ties 
will do for spiking the second time without changing 
the gage of the track, do not use a fresh -place in the 



30 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

ties to drive the spikes, but plug the old hole with a 
chip or tie plug and drive the spikes as they were before 
pulling. Ties soon rot and break off under the rail 
where spikes have been driven in different places, while 
the balance of the tie may be good, sound wood. 
TO KEEP TIES SQUARE ACROSS THE TRACK. 

7. All ties should be spiked in a position square 
across the track, especially when laying new track, 
which is to remain some time without being surfaced 
up or ballasted. The spikes should be driven in the 
ties in such a manner that they will hold them in 
place, otherwise they will be twisted out of their 
proper position and affect the gage of the track. 
Spikes should be driven with both inside spikes, or 
the two outside spikes, on the same edge of the tie. 
This prevents the ties from twisting out of square. 

TRACK NOT FULL SPIKED. 

8. When any side track or main track is not full 
spiked on the inside of the rails, the foreman in charge 
of it should examine closely all places where the ties 
have commenced to decay, and when he finds a double 
or full spiked tie rotted, should remove the inside spike 
in the rotten tie, and drive it inside the rail in the next 
single spiked tie. This is very important in the winter, 
or when the rotten ties cannot all be taken out of the 
track, because, where two full spiked^ ties are rotted 
close together, and the track is only half spiked inside 
the rails, the distance along the rails to where spikes 
are effective is from eight to twelve feet. 

This is one. of the best arguments in favor of full 
spiking all track, and applies also to side tracks. . 
SPIKING BRIDGE TIES. 

9. Holes should be bored in bridge ties along: side 
where the flanges of the rails would come; for the track 



SPIKING AND GAGING. 31 

spikes to be driven into. The holes should be one- 
sixteenth of an inch smaller in diameter than the 
spikes used. Making the holes in the ties a little 
smaller than the spikes, allows the wood to close up 
the hole around the spike when driven, and gives the 
spike a more secure hold upon the tie than if the hole 
was bored the full diameter of the spike. There is 
always danger of spliting bridge ties when the track 
spikes are driven into them without first boring the 
holes, because the grain of the wood seldom runs 
lengthways of the ties, and the work of repairing can 
always be done easier where the holes have been bored 
for the track spike, especially in oak ties. 

There should be in general use a track and guard 
rail gage combined, made by putting a lug or projec- 
tion on one end of the gage inside the track rail. This 
lug should be the proper width to fit between the 
track rail, and guard rail opposite the point of the frog, 
in order to gage the wheel channel to a uniform stand- 
ard on all switches. 



CHAPTER III.— GENERAL SPRING WORK. 

OVERHAULING TRACK IN SPRING. 

I. When the frost is leaving the ground in the 
spring track foremen should remember to do all the 
little odd jobs which have been left over or neglected 
during the winter, on account of frost and snow. Fol- 
lowing are some of the most important rules : 

Clean up the station grounds and tracks, and pile 
up neatly all track material or other material which may 
be scattered about the premises. 

Gather up all trash, cinders, old straw and manure 
from company stock yards, and haul it out to fill up 
low places or holes on the right of way, or burn it, if 
necessary. 

All switches and leads should be spiked into proper 
gage and line, and battered rails replaced by good ones. 

Guard rails and frogs should be examined, and any 
defects in them remedied, or new ones ordered to re- 
place them. 

All track ties on hand should be loaded on cars, and 
distributed along the section, where they would be 
most needed on the track, to have them ready when 
the time comes for putting them in. 

All loose boards on snow fences should be nailed up, 
and right of way fences should be examined and re- 
paired, especially in low places or where they cross 
water courses. 

Loose plank in wagon crossings should be taken 



GENERAL SPRING WORK. 33 

up and cleaned underneath, and ragged or split ends 
should be dressed with adze, and then respiked to place. 

The approaches to all highway crossings should be 
filled and fixed, so that teams would have no trouble 
in crossing the track. 

All fence posts, crossing signs, whistling posts and 
telegraph poles, should be put in correct position and 
tamped solid. 

Shimmed track should be watched, and very thick 
shims should be replaced by thinner ones as fast as 
the heaving goes down, and all shims should be re- 
moved from track as soon as it is possible to spike the 
rails to the proper surface. 

Go over the section and tighten up all loose bolts, 
putting on them nut locks or washers where necessary, 
and put in good bolts in place of broken ones. 

Look out for soft places in your track, and repair 
to the best of your ability, notifying train dispatcher 
and roadmaster when any such places become danger- 
ous, and make ditches in wet cuts to carry off the water, 
widening them or increasing their depth as the frost 
goes out. 

The different kinds of work mentioned above, if 
looked after now, will enable the track foreman to 
make much better headway when the rush of summer 
work begins. 

WASHOUTS. 

2. The time of year is now at hand when thawing, 
snow and rain, combine to increase the quantity of 
water above the surface of the ground, and as the frost 
goes out of the ground but slowly, at best, there is al- 
ways danger to a railroad from the accumulation of 
too much water 'at one place. This may damage the 
track by undermining or washing away its supports ; 
or by loosening the earth on hillsides along the track, 



34 THE TRACKMAN'S HEDFER. 

it may cause quantities of earth, stones, or trees to fall 
or slide upon the track. 

Section foremen should keep a sharp lookout for 
washouts at all points on their sections. 

Ditches should be opened up, and water-ways 
cleared of all obstructions, and all track, trestles, 
bridges and culverts should be examined every day 
without fail. Where there is liable to be any trouble 
the section foreman should remain out with his men 
day and night, and do all in his power to keep the track 
safe, always remembering that upon the vigilance of 
himself and men, may depend the lives of trainmen 
and passengers. 

In case of a dangerous storm the foreman, if his 
section extends both ways from his headquarters, should 
send a man over the short end of it with instructions 
to reach the section limit as soon as possible, and to 
remain there and use the necessary signals to flag 
trains should he find anything dangerous on the way 
out. The foreman should go as rapidly as possible in 
the opposite direction towards the other end of his 
section, leaving a man a sufficient distance ahead of 
the first break or washout to flag trains following, in 
case they should be able to get over the other end of 
the section safely. The foreman should note the loca- 
tion and dimensions of all places needing repair; but 
he should not stop to do any work until the end of 
the section is reached, and the men have each been 
posted to remain and flag trains for all the dangerous 
places found. 

The foreman should then go to the nearest tele- 
graph office and report jointly to the roadmaster and 
train dispatcher, stating fully the condition of the 
track on his section, giving location and dimensions 
of all breaks in roadbed or track, bridge and culvert 



GENERAL SPRING WORK. 35 

numbers, number of bents destroyed in bridges, and 
any other information which would be valuable as a 
basis from which to calculate the amount of material 
or force necessary to put the track in good condition. 

This will insure the safety of trains, and enable the 
train dispatcher to hold them at convenient points 
until the track is passable, and the roadmaster and 
bridge- men will be prepared to get the work done 
without delay. 

After reporting the condition of your section you 
can go to work repairing small breaks at points where 
a large gang of men could not work to advantage, but 
do not call away your men who are flagging at danger- 
ous places, until you are positive that there is no possi- 
bility of trains passing there, or the roadmaster has 
arrived with extra force to protect and repair such 
places. 

Instances have occurred where foremen have 
stopped to repair the first bad spot found, and allowed 
trains to run into other bad places on their section. It 
is always the foreman's duty first to protect those de- 
pendent upon him for safety, and then to notify su- 
perior officers of the condition of their sections. If 
the whole of the track on your section is safe, send re- 
port to that effect so that trains will not be delayed 
by slowly feeling their way over it. 

REPAIRING TRACK. 

3. When track is being repaired which has become 
rough or uneven, all low places should be brought up 
to surface and both rails on straight track should be 
level, and on curves the elevation should be uniform 
to suit the degree of the curve. 

ON LONG SECTIONS BALLASTED WITH EARTH. 

4. When a section is long and a foreman is allowed 



36 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

only a small force of men to keep it in repair, it is not 
a good policy to surface a track out of a face (as should 
be done when putting in gravel). A section foreman, 
if forced through necessity to get up to surface a rough 
piece of track with a small force, can do so in a short 
time by adhering closely to the following instructions, 
which are only intended for section foremen with long 
sections, a track laid on clay, and a very limited num- 
ber of men for help. For example, we will say a fore- 
man is allowed only four men on a ten-mile section. 
Select the roughest part of your section, give one 
man a shovel, another the track level or jack, keep 
these two men with you ; the man with the shovel to 
dig block hole for lever, and assist in raising the low 
places wherever it is necessary. When you find a place 
that needs raising, stoop down and sight the rail. Take 
an estimate in your mind of how low the place in the 
rail is which you have sighted below the proper surface, 
also count the number of ties running each way from 
the lowest point. Then tell your two men to raise that 
part of the rail which is the lowest, and when it is up 
about four or five inches, or so high that dirt can be 
easily thrown under, take your own shovel and throw 
under each tie the exact amount of dirt that you think 
is necessary to bring it up to a proper surface. To do 
this work properly, so that it will hold track up for 
some time, the dirt should be thrown under the ties a 
little at a time, and as far as it can be put towards the 
center of the track. Because, if the dirt is thrown only 
under the ends of the ties, a hole is left under the mid- 
dle of the tie inside of the rail, which will fill with water 
when it rains and become worse than before. But if 
the rules here laid down are followed out properly, a 
section foreman of ordinary intelligence, after a little 
practice, may become an expert at this kind of work, 



GENERAL SPRING WORK. 37 

and make almost as good a track as by tamping it in 
the regular way. 

When a section gets very rough the ordinary- 
method of repairing track must be dropped for the 
time being, and in the case mentioned, viz.: a very 
long section, rough track and small force, if the fore- 
man can pocket his pride and risk being called a corn 
husker, he may, by following the above plans make a 
wonderful improvement in his track in a short time. A 
foreman can get over about one-quarter of a mile in 
a day, in good weather. It is best for a man who has 
never tried this method to practice on very low joints. 
As to the other two men of the four, they should be 
left to follow up, dressing the track, filling the block 
holes, etc. About two hours before quitting time the 
foreman should stop raising, take the four men, and 
line up the piece of track which he has raised, leaving 
a perfect line on the line side ; he should then let two 
men dress the center of the track, while the other two 
take a gage and spike maul, and bring all crooked 
places in the gage side to the proper line and gage. 
After a section foreman has gone over his whole sec- 
tion in this way, the track will be greatly improved and 
will look as good as the average dirt surfaced road. 
Now supposing the foreman has got so far along with 
his work as to have his section all surfaced up in the 
aforesaid way, he can go back and pick up small sags 
wherever he can procure enough dirt to bring them 
up to surface. The sags should be surfaced out of a 
face and tamped and allowance made for track settling. 
When a rail on one side of the track is sighted the sec- 
tion foreman should use the spirit level to bring the 
opposite rail, which is raised up to surface. 
DRESSING MUD TRACK. 

5. When you fill in track with dirt, have your men 



38 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

throw the material in the center of the track. It is much 
easier to dress it then than if it is thrown along just 
inside of the rail in a slovenly manner. Round the 
dirt off, leaving the center about two and a half inches 
above the tie. Cover about two feet six inches of the 
center of the ties between the rails, sloping the dirt from 
the center so that a shovel blade can easily be passed 
up under the rails between the ties and allow the water 
to run off. Continue the slope until it runs out at the 
bottom of the ends of the ties. Outside of the ties the 
shoulder should slope one and a half inches to the 
foot, as far as the edge of the embankment. In a dry 
country the filling may be allowed to come up higher 
between the ends of ties. 

LINING OLD TRACK. 

6. When a railroad is in operation the track should 
be kept in perfect line at all times. Nothing con- 
tributes more to the smooth riding of a train than a 
true line of rails. The foreman, when lining track, 
should do as much as possible with his back to the 
sun, because in that way he gets the best view of the 
rails. It is also necessary to look at the track line 
from the opposite direction, especially when lining 
across a sag, and also at end of curves. A common fault 
is in lining the last four or five rails on tangents to t 
throw the track too far out. Very few trackmen can 
line track perfectly by going over it only once, unless 
they are experts and have perfect sight. Always stand 
as far away from the place to be lined as your sight 
will allow, and train your men to line by the motion of 
your hands, when first putting the rails in place. By 
standing too close to the place to be lined, you are 
liable to throw a swing to one side of the track. This 
is a fault of manv foremen and should be avoided. If 



GENERAL SPRING WORK. 39 

you have a section which the previous foreman left in 
bad line, show your ability by remedying its defects 
in that particular every time you have an opportunity. 
If a foreman has some track on his section which has 
settled down and out of line, where the ground is wet 
or soft, and he has not the force of men necessary to 
move it, the work of putting it to place can be done 
with a small gang, by pulling the spikes out of two or 
three ties in a rail length at a time, and using the lining 
bars on top of the dead ties under the rails, thereby 
gaining a solid foundation to rest the bars upon, and 
much more leverage than could be got with the bars in 
the ground. After the track has been lined to place, 
the dead ties can be shifted to their proper positions or 
the rails can be spiked down on them temporarily as 
they lie. When the track has a tendency to slip back 
the dead ties act as a brace to keep it in position. Very 
heavy track can be lined over to where it is wanted 
with a force of only two men by using a track lever or 
long bar on top of a block of wood with a rounding 
top surface. Place this block underneath the rail on 
that side of the track towards which it is desired to line 
it to. By pulling down on the lever a lifting pull is ex- 
erted, which draws the track towards that side, and 
with the assistance of another man on the opposite side 
of the track pulling in the same direction with a com- 
mon lining bar, the track can be lined to place. Fore- 
men whose eye-sight is not equal to the task, can assist 
themselves when lining long stretches of track by plac- 
ing clods of dirt or other small objects along on top 
of rail joints where the track has to be moved. It is 
much easier to get the small, dark objects into a true 
line, on account of the contrast between them and the 
rail, than it is to line perfectly a long stretch of rail, 
with its brightly polished and unbroken surface. Some 



40 THE TRACKMAN'S H'ELiPlER. 

of the instruction here given as to track lining may 
seem unimportant, but a knowledge of how to act in 
certain cases is often the want of a trackman, and to 
the young man not much experienced or learned in the 
track service, they will be found a valuable help. 
BOLTS THAT ARE TOO TIGHT. 

7. Some trackmen think that all bolts should be 
kept as tight as it is possible to make them. But it is 
an error any trackman will fall into, until he is con- 
vinced to the contrary. There are several kinds of nut 
locks for track bolts in use on the railroads through- 
out the United States, the majority of which are de- 
vised for the purpose of locking the nut, and, at the 
same time, allowing the rails to contract or expand af- 
ter the bolts are tightened without danger of breaking 
them. But the section foreman and his men come 
along, and tighten up all the bolts on the section, even 
if they can only make a quarter of a turn with the 
wrench. In fact, many foreman add pieces to the 
ends of the .track wrenches, so that the men may be 
able to get more leverage, and as a result of their labor 
everything on a joint in the shape of a nut, lock, or 
washer, whether it be iron, or steel, or wood, or rubber, 
has every particle of spring or elasticity taken out of 
it, and the bolts all stand ready, the moment a train 
passes or a change in the temperature comes, to pop 
off, as they break like so many candy sticks and num- 
bers of them can be found along the track. Many of 
the nut locks which are used as above are no longer 
of any value except as washers to cover a few threads 
of the bolt. A joint with either four or six bolts in it, 
with a spring nut lock on each bolt, should have the 
nuts tightened just enough to get the full force of the 
resistance of the material used for a washer between 



GENERAL SPRING WORK. 41 

the nut and splice. A comfortable twist of the track 
wrench with the 'hand, after the nut is run up to place 
will be found sufficient force to use when tightening 
bolts. When bolts are tightened in this way and there 
are angle bar splices used on the rail joint slot spiked 
to the ties all danger of the bolts or rails being injured 
is avoided, and the rails can contract or expand with- 
out track creeping. A slot spike through the rail 
flange in a tie with the bolts in the joint as tight as 
they can be made will either break the bolt or kink the 
rail near the spike, or throw the track out of line in hot 
weather. To prevent trackmen from breaking bolts 
when tightening them, track wrenches should not be 
made longer than sixteen inches for f in. bolts. 
REMOVING OLD TRACK BOLTS. 
8. When removing old track bolts from a joint 
splice, foremen should not allow their men to strike 
the thread end of the bolts with a wrench, a hammer, 
or any tool that would injure the bolt. Such usage 
spoils the bolts for further service. Nor should fore- 
men allow their men to break the bolts out of a joint 
except in a case of emergency, such as to get ready for 
an expected train, or when a large gang of men, ready 
for work, might be delayed too long by waiting to re- 
move a few bolts with a wrench. The nut should not 
be entirely removed from the bolt while in the splice 
until the bolt is loosened. A light tap on the nut when 
nearly off will loosen the bolt in the splice without in- 
juring the thread. The threads of the old bolts should 
be oiled, and then nuts put back on the bolts again, 
so as to have them ready to use when wanted. By 
way of information it may be stated that a new bolt 
costs about ic and if they are on 'hand no time should 
be wasted trying to save an old, rusty, battered bolt. 



42 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

CHANGES OF TEMPERATURE. 

9. All sudden changes of temperature affect the 
bolts on account of the expansion or contraction of the 
rails. This is most noticeable in the spring and fall of 
the year. Foremen should not neglect to tighten up 
the bolts when they begin to rattle as trains pass over, 
or at any time when it is necessary. Always remem- 
ber that loose bolts make low joints, and increase the 
labor of track repair. 

LINE OF ERIDGES. 

10. Section foremen should be particular to keep 
the rails on all bridges in good line, especially when 
they heave up or out of line in winter; also keep a good 
line and surface on the approaches. 

NUT LOCKS. 

11. There is hardly a railroad now in operation that 
is not using nut locks of some form, the best known 
of which is the Verona Nut 
Lock, there being over 270 
millions in use. The utility 
of a satisfactory locking 
device for nuts is unques- 
tioned, since its application 

FIG. 3. 
saves its cost many times 

over in reduced labor tightening bolts; and the saving 
effected in preventing nuts from working loose insures 
also the required stiffness in joint fastenings, arid pre- 
vents their wear. 

There have been numerous kinds of nut locks de- 
vised and manufactured, some possessing real merit 
and more having no value at all; but in point of sim- 
plicity and adaptability the Verona Spiral Nut Lock 
has won a place as a general favorite. They are well- 
tempered and elastic, and after the bolts give out and 




GENERAL SPRING WORK. 43 

are thrown in the scrap pile, the nut locks can be put 
to use on new bolts. Fig. 3 illustrates the device. 
REPAIRING BRIDGES. 

I2„ All repair work on bridges should be done by 
bridge men or those who have charge of such work. 
Section foremen should not attempt to raise up string- 
ers or caps on bridges, or do any other work on bridges 
for which they have not the proper tools or the neces- 
sary practice to perform. In absence of bridge car- 
penters section foremen can shim up the approaches 
of bridges when out of surface, or put blocking under 
stringers which have become loose on pile bridges, etc. 
All shimming should be done on top of ties when prac- 
ticable. 

THE ENDS OF BRIDGES. 

13. The ends of all pile or frame bent bridges should 
be planked and filled in with ballast, and all dump ties 
should be tamped solid, up to the ends of the bridges. 
Whenever it is practicable the end of a bridge and the 
dump should meet under the center of the track rails 
laid over them, because when a rail joint comes on the 
dump close to the end of a bridge, it is always more 
difficult to keep the track up to a good surface than if 
the center of a rail were there. 



CHAPTER IV.— DRAINAGE. 

DITCHING. 

I. In order to ditch a cut properly, a foreman 
should take measurements from the rail to the bottom 
of the face of the cut, at different places along the cut, 
and ascertain at what average distange from the track 
it will be best to have the back of the ditch. This is 
very important, because in the majority of cuts on a 
railroad the line of face is more or less irregular and 
not truly parallel to the track, and : the best distance 
from the track for the back of a ditch is that distance 
which will give a good ditch without moving too great 
an amount of material. After a foreman has decided 
what width the ditch should be, he should line it with 
the shovel or drive stakes along the back of it, for his 
men to work by; otherwise they will be apt to make it 
crooked. Nothing is more unsightly than a crooked 
ditch, and it will fill up much quicker than a straight 
one. The ditch should always be a little deeper at the 
lower end of the cut, and gradually grow shallower as 
it goes up grade. If you ditch parts of two or three 
cuts on your section at different times, each of the 
cuts will have some time to drain off, the material in 
the ditches will be dryer and in better condition to 
work in, and men can do more than if they were kept 
in one very wet cut all the time. Where water leaves 
a cut through a ditch, the ditch should be well turned 
off from the track. Always carry the discharge end 



DRAINAGE. 45 

of a ditch so far away from the track that there will be 
no danger of water from the ditch washing out the em- 
bankment under the track. Foremen should always 
select for ditching a time of the year when the weather 
is not fair enough to do other track work. Some fore-' 
men use very poor judgment in this matter, sometimes 
spending two or three weeks in making a ditch during 
good dry weather, while there is a great amount of bad 
track on their section which needs to be put in good 
repair. 

FORM OF DITCHES. 

2. The width of a cut and the slope of its face on 
each side of the track must always govern, to a certain 
extent, how far from the track rails to have the back 



of a ditch. All railroad cuts should be open so wide 
when the track is first laid that there will be room to 
make all ditches a uniform distance from the rail. A 
ditch should be deep enough to thoroughly drain the 
track, and the distance from the rail to the back of it 
should be in proportion to the depth of the ditch, giv- 
ing the water an easy fall from the track and free 
passage through the ditch, so that there will be no 
danger of its washing the shoulder of the grade, or un- 
dermining the track. Deep ditches close to the track 
in a cut, soon weaken the foundation, and wash away 
the ballast outside the ties, especially where the bal- 
last is sand or gravel. The bottom of a ditch should 



46 



THE TRACKMAN'S HEDPER. 



be from eight to ten feet from the rails where the grade 
width will allow it, and should also be two feet below 
the bottom of the ties. 

Fig. 4. shows formation of ditch on the L. & N. 
Ry., measuring 8 ft. 8 inches from rail to back of ditch. 
Some roads form their ditch as far as 12 ft. from nearest 
rail, which, however, is exceptional. 
SLOPE OF DITCHES. 

3. When track is ballasted with dirt the slope 
should commence in the center of the track two and 




V=rc_ 



one-half inches above the ties, and run out for a dis- 
tance of seven feet, falling at the rate of one and one- 
half inches to the foot. From this point, which is three 
feet outside the ties, and two inches lower, the incline 
should be greater, about in the proportion of four 
inches or more to the horizontal foot. See Fig. 5.) 
Ditches which are made to conform to this shape are 




easily cleaned out. They are quicker made, and there 
is much less dirt to be moved than when the ditch is 
made dish form, because the water is always thrown 
away from the track. It is a mistake to run the slope 
from the bottom of the ends of the ties, directly to the 
back of the ditch, as some trackmen do, because when 
the track is raised up to put ballast under it, the inclina- 



DRAINAGE. 



47 



tion of the foundation beneath it will be too sharp to 
protect the ballast from wasting or washing away. If 
a track is ballasted with gravel, the slope towards the 
back of the ditch should commence about two feet 
outside the track rails, as shown in Fig. 6, the ballast at 
this point being nearly level with the base of the rails. 
This is subject, however, to considerable variation, 
and hardly two roads agree exactly as to what is the 
proper form of roadbed, slopes, ditches,, etc. Figs. 7 




FIG. 7. 

and 8 show the practice on the Great Northern Rail- 
way on gravel ballasted single track road. It is seen 
that the ballast slopes in the cut from the rail to within 
6 inches of berme, and on a fill from the rail to within 
18 inches of berme width of roadbed, being 3 feet 
greater on the fill than in the cut. Another, modifica- 
tion is shown in Figs. 9 and 10, showing method in 
vogue on the Union Pacific Railway. Note that slope 



». . _ 4 --6- - e«— „:-<,■■ > -» f- *'■ 6"%» -«' 

FIG. 8. 

of ditch adjacent to track is one in five, while slope 
away from track is one in one. 

GRADE OF DITCHES. 

4. If a cut is level throughout its length, the ditch 
should be deeper at the ends than at the middle. Where 



48 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



the grade of a cut descends towards the ends from the 
center, the average depth of the ditch may be the same 
throughout the cut. Trackmen should always begin 
to ditch at the lower end of a wet cut, and finish up as 
they go. The piece ditched every day will help to drain 
off the water behind them. The principle governing 




FIG. 9. 

this is that a ditch must have fall in the direction the 
water is to drain. 

CLEANING OUT DITCHES. 

5. No old ties or other obstructions should ever 
be allowed to remain in the ditches along the track. 
They should be cleaned out thoroughly every fall and 
the last thing before winter sets in, so that during the 




continuance of the spring rains or while snow is melt- 
ing, the water can pass off freely without injuring the 
track. A small ditch made with a plow along the top 
of the side of a deep cut, and near the edge of its face, 
will carry off the surface water, and protect the side 
of the cut from washing into the track ditches and 
filling them up too rapidly. 

If the track through a cut has a uniform falling 
grade sometime advantage may be taken of it to turn 



DRAINAGE. 49 

any surface water flowing near the upper end down 
through the ditch and thus keep it scoured out. There 
is no danger of injury to the track if the ditch carrying 
the water to the upper end of the cut is not made too 
large. 

A DITCHING RULE. 

6. A simple device like that shown in Fig. 1 1 is 
very handy for foremen to use when ditching. It 
can be made as follows: Use for the long piece a 
straight edge 1x4 inches, twelve feet long. For the 




FIG. 11. 

short cross-piece B, use a piece of board 1x3 inches, 
four feet long. On one end of the long piece fix a 
piece of sheet iron, C, twelve or fourteen inches long, 
double it, and bolt' the ends of it through the wood, 
leaving a space through which the short piece, B, can 
be passed freely. A hole should be bored through": 
the sheet iron, so that a set screw or a bolt can be used 
to secure the short piece at any distance from either 
end of it. The cross piece, B, of the ditching rule should 
be set so that the back of it will be at the proper angle 
for the back of the ditch, and upon one side of it should 
be marked the distances by which to regulate the depth : 
of the ditch. When in operation, one end of this ditch^-- 
ing rule, D, should rest upon the nearest track rail, 
and at the other end the material should be removed 
from the face of the cut, until the cross piece, B, rests 
in proper position to shape the ditch. Then, by trying 
the spirit level on top of the longer piece, and adjust- 
ing the cross piece to the required depth, the bottom 



50 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

level of the ditch can be carried uniformly throughout 
the length of the cut, if the track is in true surface, 
without any change in the rule. Foremen should fit 
the rule to place at distances of a rail length, or less, 
and the men will have a guide to work by, and can cut 
the ditch correctly without any additional labor. A 
marker can be put on the long piece, which will show 
where the ditch slope commences outside the ends of 
the track ties. If it is desirable to lower the ditch, say 
twelve inches in as many rail lengths, it is only neces- 
sary to let the cross piece, B, down one inch every 
thirty feet, at the same time keeping the long piece 
always level on top. In like manner by shortening up 
the cross piece the ditch bottom can be gradually raised 
or made more shallow. 

TRACK DRAINAGE. 

7. A thoroughly good drainage is one of the most 
essential features of a first-class track, to accomplish 
which, all the water which falls upon the track or ad- 
joining land should be conducted through ditches, 
culverts, bridges, or other channels to the nearest 
running stream that will take it away beyond possi- 
bility of injuring the track. 

These channels for conveying the water away from 
the track should be sufficiently large to perform the 
duty required of them as well during a freshet as when 
only an ordinary amount of water passes through. At 
all marshy or low places where water remains stand- 
ing along side of the track, openings should be made 
high enough above the water to insure a solid, dry 
roadway. The embankment should also be rip-rapped 
along the sides, if there is any possibility of strong 
winds or rapid streams forcing the water against it 
and washing the material away. 

In this connection it should be remarked that where 



DRAINAGE. 51 

musk rats or minks are plentiful and cause damage to 
the track by burrowing under it, a good heavy coating 
of cinders and slag along the sides of the embankment 
is a most effectual protection against their depreda- 
tions. The cinders form an acid in the water, besides 
they are too sharp for the animals to burrow through, 
forming thus an admirable remedy against their rav- 
ages. 

In deep, wet cuts where the material has a tendency 
to slide, the roadbed should be widened out much more 
than at any other point, and the face of the side of the 
cut should be made with a very gradual incline from 
the top of the cut to the track. If it will grow some 
grass all the better. • 

The work of widening cuts and roadbeds can be 
done cheaper and to better advantage before the track 
is laid than afterwards. 

The bottoms of ditches which run alongside the 
track, through a cut, should be carried not less than 
ten feet from the rails on each side, and they should 
be as far below the bottom of the track ties as it is 
possible to have them, and retain a nicely propor- 
tioned incline from the ends of the ties to the back of 
the ditch. Open ditches or tiling which are too close 
to the track, or not deep enough below the track ties, 
are only a make-shift and a hindrance to maintaining 
a good, dry track. Coarse stone makes a good founda- 
tion in a wet cut, if laid beneath the ballast into which 
the ties are imbedded (but they can be dispensed 
with, where the track can be raised up above the mud 
without spoiling the surface or grade standard). In 
fact, this latter is the most economical method (after 
a track has been laid) of draining a track and making 
a good ditch at the same time. Briefly stated, to drain 
the track in a cut, the same conditions must exist, as 



52 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

nearly as possible, as where the track is. laid in ballast 
on a good, solid fill or embankment, several feet above 
the surface of the ground the same as where there is 
no cut. 

The incline of the sides of the embankment should 
be a natural slope, with no abrupt angles. No earth 
embankment can be prevented from washing without 
artificial means where the incline is so steep that veg- 
etation will not grow upon it. 

Instead of box or open culverts of timber, iron 
tubing or vitrified culvert pipe of a sufficient strength 
should be substituted, this tubing or pipe to be faced 
with masonry at both the inlet and outlet of the pipes 
on each side of the embankment; and where the di- 
ameter of these pipes is too small to carry off all the 
water, there should be two or more of them laid across 
under the track parallel with each other. By laying 
the pipes with a fall of about I foot in 10, or even more, 
their carrying capacity is increased and the danger of 
becoming choked with sand or debris diminished. 

Where the conditions are favorable and the cost is 
not too great, stone arched openings should be put 
under the track, with good, strong, side walls, a paved 
floor and deflecting wings at both sides of the em- 
bankment; these to take the place, as far as possible, 
of all small wooden bridges. 

CULVERTS AND BRIDGES. 

8. The policy of most railroads in regard to bridges 
and water ways is to contract the limits of bridges and 
trestles as much as is practicable, because earth is a 
much cheaper article to support the track where it can 
be used with safety. This is also the reason why box 
culverts are substituted for small bridges wherever it 
can be done, and at many places where it should not 



DRAINAGE. 53 

be done, as, for instance, at points where the opening 
is not large enough to carry off the amount of water 
which must pass through under the track. Then the 
culvert generally washes out, the earth above it is un- 
dermined, and the result is a wreck of more or less 
magnitude, unless the trackmen discover and repair 
the damage in time. 

Even when wooden culverts are covered with earth, 
parts of the side timbers project on the ends, and there 
is always more or less rubbish, dead grass or weeds, 
which accumulates at the mouths of them, making the 
liability to accident by fire almost as great as on tres- 
tles or bridges. 

W'hen nothing but wood is used in the construction 
of bridges or culverts, small pile bridges should be 
used instead of box culverts. There is less danger of 
the bridges washing out, while liability to accident by 
fire is about the same, and a man patrolling the track 
can see at a glance when an open bridge-is safe, while 
he must often go 20 to 30 feet below the track to ex- 
amine a culvert. 

GRADING CUTS. 

9. Wet, soft cuts on railroads are a great annoy- 
ance, and very expensive for the companies that are 
troubled with them. They are the chief cause for in- 
creasing the section force and for which ditching gangs 
and extra quantities of ballast must be furnished. 

In the spring and summer the track in wet cuts is 
rough and sometimes hard to find where there is no 
ballast under it. Trains must run slow and the wear and 
tear on rolling stock is greater than at other points on 
the road. In the winter the track in bad cuts is heaved 
up, and it requires considerable extra labor and ex- 
pense to keep it passable, and owing to the frequent 



54 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

spiking and the nature of the material in which they 
are laid the ties soon rot and have to be renewed. For 
new railroad construction there is a cheap and effective 
remedy for the evils above mentioned which is seldom 
or never adopted. This consists in widening the road- 
bed in proportion to the height of the cut, or in con- 
formity with the nature of the material through which 
the cut is made, instead of following out the ironclad 
rule which makes the width of the roadbed the same in 
all cuts, whether in rock or yellow clay. A practical 
and experienced man should have full charge of the 
grading work on a new road, and he should be at lib- 
erty to widen the roadbed, or ease the side slopes of 
any cut, in a manner which would protect the track 
from the effects of heavy rains or a springy bottom. 

Surface ditches should be put along the tops of all 
cuts to run off the water at the ends, and to prevent 
it coming in on the track over the faces of the cuts. 



CHAPTER V.— SUMMER TRACK WORK. 

RENEWAL OF TIES. 

I. The month of May is the season when the work 
of general track repair should be pushed steadily. 
Track is becoming dry in many places, and heaved 
track is settling back to its old bed. 

Section foremen should select parts of the track at 
the furthest ends of their sections, and work in the 
following manner. Tamp up all low places to the 
proper surface and level ; tighten up all bolts ; put a 
good line on the track, and take all kinks out of the 
gage side ; fill in the center of the track where neces- 
sary, and dress it out of a face, cleaning the shoulder 
of all weeds, and strengthening the embankment at all 
weak points as you go along. In fact, do everything 
necessary to make a good safe track. Do not slight 
anything, and you will have the satisfaction of know- 
ing that so much track as has received your attention 
is in good shape, when you are called away to do other 
important work, such as putting in ties, cutting weeds, 
laying new steel, etc. Add to this good track daily, 
and save making so many excursions after that par- 
ticular low joint, bad bridge approach, or battered 
rail, all of which jobs if looked after separately, con- 
sume lots of valuable time. Every section on a mud 
road ought to have a mile or more of ballasted track 
so that time which would be lost in spring or rainy 
weather could be spent on this portion of the track to 



56 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

advantage. It is a common sight to see a section gang 
tinkering around switches or slopping around in a 
muddy ditch while waiting for the ballast to dry. As 
a large proportion of the time so spent is wasted but 
must be paid for just the same, it follows that the bal- 
last given to a section is doubly economical, effecting, 
as it does, an improvement in track, and also a saving 
of money that would otherwise be spent unprofitably. 

When the time comes for putting in new ties, those 
broken under the track rails, or where there are sev- 
eral rotten ties together should be removed first. The 
work of changing ties should be well done. Ties 
should be properly spaced, laid square across the track, 
and tamped solid up under the rail. The number 
should be increased wherever there was a wide space 
between the old ties. If, when putting in ties near a 
joint, a shoulder tie is found too weak to hold a slot 
spike or a joint tie is not large enough to give the re- 
quired support and yet sound enough to last a year or 
two, it is best to move them to one side, when a rotten 
tie has been taken out, and put in a new tie. Joint ties 
especially should be changed whenever they show signs 
of weakness. The best time to do this is when surfac- 
ing track, because the dirt between the ties has been 
used in tamping and the ties may be moved without 
much labor. Still it will pay to do it even when simply 
renewing ties. 

Track should not be ballasted or surfaced out of a 
face before frost is entirely out of the ground, nor 
should new steel be laid until the track is in a good 
condition to receive it except when a gang of men is 
furnished to go along and fix the track as fast as it is 
laid. But such work is better if delayed until the 
weather is warm and the ground thoroughly dry. 

By the first of June, section foremen should have 



SUMMER TRACK WORK. 57 

their track in as good a condition as possible, so as to 
give most of their time to cutting weeds and surfacing, 
without having to do so much general repair work. 
TRACK TIES 

2. In ties or sleepers, the species of the wood enter- 
ing the same are of great variety. They range from 
cedar and other soft woods to lignumvitae. The ma- 
jority are, however, of cedar, cypress, hemlock, pine, 
chestnut and oak, and are used according to the por- 
tion of the country the railroad runs through. In size 
they vary according to the specifications of the par- 
ticular' company that they are being cut for. The 
lengths run from 8 to 9 feet ; thickness, 6 to 7 inches ; 
and the face, when hewn, 6 to 9 inches. Timber cross- 
ties can be divided into two general classes, and these 
in turn can be subdivided as follows : 

1 st. Hewn. 

(a) Quarter tie. 

(b) Slab tie. 

(c) Half tie. 

(d) Uneven tie. 

(e) Pole tie. 
2d. Sawed. 

(a) Quarter tie. 

(b) Slab tie. 

(c) Half tie. 

(d) Pole tie. 

Fig. 12 shows, at upper part, first, a quarter tie; 
that is, a tree quartered into four ties, that has very 
little heart, as one corner of same, which, if placed 
in track with heart up, will check quickly ; and if put 
with heart down, as shown below same, and the spikes 
are driven in, will split the heart part away from the 
rest of the tie. A slab tie is shown at No. 2 ; that is, a 



58 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



tree halved into two ties, and the same results occur as 
from quarter ties. At No. 3 a half tie, which explains 
itself. These ties, when the heart is placed down, give 
for support of the rail only sapwood, which will be 
quickly cut into. At No. 4 is shown an uneven hewn 
tie with a face of 3 inches on one side, which, if placed 
up, will very soon be cut into by the rail base, as shown 
below same. Nos. 5 and 6 *show pole ties, so-called, 
which are the best for use in track, owing to the heart 

RAILROAD TIES. 




C£tU. CHESTNUT 

FIG. 12. 



being at the center, with sapwood on the outer cor- 
ners only ; and such ties, when placed on track, will 
give longer life and allow correct spiking for gage 
and to prevent creeping, and will not require so quickly 
the use of plates' on tangents; whereas the other ties 
when used should have a tie plate with some, if sap is 
placed up, to prevent their being cut into. 

On lower part of cut is shown, first, a hard pine 
tie, then a cedar, then a chestnut, then a narrow-face 
chestnut and a wide face chestnut tie. It will be no- 



SUMMER TRACK WORK. 59 

ticed the hard pine tie is cut in but little, the cedar and 
narrow-face chestnut the most, which would occasion, 
if ties thus placed were of different wood or of different 
face, an uneven bearing- for the rail base when the 
wheels are upon same. 

There can be brought up also the objection of nar- 
row and wide face ties placed near each other, espe- 
cially if under a bridge or at a highway crossing, 
owing to the fact that frost will hang under wide-face 
ties and come out quickly under a narow-face, making 
uneven riding track in the spring. Above same on 
cut is shown a rail spiked to such ties with the face 
shown. In the tamping of track, a pole tie as shown 
at No. 5 can be worked more quickly to a good bed 
than any other, and if half ties are used, as shown at 
No. 3, the tendency is for them to cant, unless track- 
men are careful in the tamping of same. Where square 
ties are used, except in rock ballast, more labor is re- 
quired to tamp them to a good bed than of pole ties 
at No. 5 style. For economy of material, it is to ad- 
vantage, then, to make use of ties of the same kind of 
timber together, and not mix the hard and soft woods, 
to give good riding track. Also, the same reason holds 
good to prevent the tearing up of the track in frequent 
renewals of ties, where the different kinds of wood are 
used promiscuously, as a cedar tie of good heart will 
last twice as long as any other tie in the ground. Chest- 
nut comes next, then hard pine ; though it is admitted 
that white oak ties should rank to cedar, provided you 
get them of good timber. All other kinds of oak or 
hemlock it is not advisable to use, owing to their short 
life of only about four years, demanding frequent re- 
newal, which is not economy of labor, as well as dam- 
age to the rail upon same. 

It is not always possible to procure the best ties, 



60 THE TRACKMAN'S HEDFER. 

but an effort should be made to have them above the 
average, even at an increased price. Other things be- 
ing equal, a railroad which is not compelled to renew 
its track ties for nine or ten years after they are laid in 
the ground, has an immense advantage over a road 
that must renew its ties once in five years. The latter 
road must figure into its expense account almost 
double the cost for material, besides the additional 
track labor necessary to do the work, and during the 
interval it cannot have as good a track as the former. 
Ties sawed square will rot quicker and break easier 
than hewed ties, and are generally too small to give a 
good bearing surface. But pole ties, with a face on 
two sides, made by sawing slabs from them, are gen- 
erally good and preferable to quarter ties or ties split 
out of very large logs, because the wood of a big tree 
is more brittle than that of a younger growth. A well 
hewed pole tie, with a face on two sides, eight to ten 
inches wide, is preferable to all others for track pur- 
poses. No tie should exceed seven inches in thick- 
ness, and all ties should be cut a uniform length for 
main track, except in bridges and switches. It seems 
to be a very difficult matter when constructing a new 
railroad, or when procuring new ties for renewals, to 
secure ties of a size that will be uniform in width of 
face and thickness. In regard to the length of ties, the 
ugly and irregular line of ties on the gage side of track, 
caused by the difference in the length of ties, is the 
result of gross carelessness in the office or company 
that accepts them from the tie maker. If ties were all 
of a uniform length, besides improving the track, it 
would prevent uneven settling of track ; and by lining 
evenly on both sides, they aid the track foreman in 
arranging the ballast a uniform width on each side of 
track, and prevent the useless work spent in tamping 



SUMMER TRACK WORK. 61 

the long ends and digging out for them, and on mud 
track it would lessen the labor of weed cutting. The 
life of a track tie is not altogether dependent upon the 
kind or quality of timber used. 

The same kind of a tie will last longer at the North 
where the ground is frozen all winter, than in the 
South, where the process of decay goes on uninter- 
ruptedly. There is also a marked difference in the 
effect on ties of an extremely wet or dry climate, or 
the amount of traffic over them. If the length of ties 
equaled twice the gage of track, they would give much 
more support to the rail and center bound track would 
not be heard of. As it is, the ties receive their main 
support from the inside and only a small proportion 
from the outside ends. This condition soon develops 
swings and rough track. If the rail received as much 
support from the outside as from the inside the ends 
of the ties would not spring up and down under a 
passing train ; consequently there would be no space 
between the ends of the ties and the ballast beneath 
for water to get into and the tie would rest solidly on 
the foundation from end to end. This would have a 
material influence in holding the track in line. The 
increased cost of longer ties would be more than offset 
in the saving effected in the expense of keeping track 
in repair and there is reason to believe that the life of 
the tie would be increased also. 

RENEWING TIES. 
3. When putting ties under the track the foreman 
should never allow the men to dig out any more than 
is necessary to allow the tie to go under easily. The 
old bed should not be disturbed if the new tie will fit. 
A very good method for putting ties in a mud track, 
where there are a good many ties to be changed, is to 
dig out between every two rotten ties, and on each 



62 THE TRACKMAN'S HEDPEiR. 

side of the track, a little deeper than the bed of the 
ties, pull the spikes from the old ties, spring the rail 
on a tie either side of the hole which has been dug, 
and slip a spike under the rail. Use nothing thicker 
than a spike. Then knock the old ties into the hole, 
and pull out. Pull the new tie into the same hole from 
the opposite side of the track, if it is of about the right 
size ; let a man on each side of the track slide the tie 
into its bed, keeping it close up to the rail until in its 
place. If the place to receive the tie is a little too deep, 
scatter a shovel or two of fine dirt evenly over the bed, 
then slide the tie under the rail as before. When both 
new ties are in, take the spike from under the rail, and 
you will find both ties in better shape than if tamped 
under for several minutes. The ties will hug the rail 
and very seldom be over an eighth of an inch too high, 
an error which cannot be seen after the first train passes 
over. 

The above method is the best, safest, and quickest 
for mud track. When ties are put in this way there is 
no tamping to be done, and they can be spiked without 
the necessity of having a man to hold up the ends of 
the ties for the spiker. In gravel or stone, the ties must 
be tamped, and should be held up to the rail when spik- 
ing them. 

When men have had some practice at putting in ties 
in this way, they can put in one-third more in a day, 
per man, than by tamping ; and in much better shape. 
But it is not advisable to raise the track up to put in 
ties in gravel, because the gravel will run under the 
ties and spoil the surface. : 

New ties should always be spaced evenly ; they 
should be square across the track, and on single track 
laid so that the same length of tie will project outside 
of each rail, as very short or long ties, if put to line on 



SUMMER TRACK WORK. 63 

the line side, would give an uneven bearing surface for 
the rails, thereby making track difficult to keep level. 
The only necessity for a line side on such ties is when 
laying new track. But on double track the outside of 
each should be the line side. 

SELECT YOUR JOINT TIES. 

4. Under joints where angle bar splices are used, 
put in two well-hewn ties of about equal size, and have 
each tie come well under the angle bar splices not over 
six inches apart. When putting in ties a foreman 
should divide his gang in such a way that all can be 
working at once, having each man do the work he is 
best suited to perform, and when working a large 
number of men he ought to have tools enough to work 
them in separate gangs, because in this way a great 
deal more work can be done in proportion to the num- 
ber of men. Ties sawed square should never be put 
under a rail joint. 

FINISH AS YOU GO. 

5. When a section foreman is putting in ties out 
of a face, leaving the track level well tied behind him, 
he should take time each day to level up all low places 
in the piece of track laid, dressing it up, not only in 
spots where the ties have been put under, but continu- 
ously. He should, if necessary, cut the weeds at the 
same time, and do any other work that is needed. By 
doing the work this way he leaves behind him every 
day a good piece of track, which grows longer as he 
advances, and shows up to his own advantage, and his 
superior's satisfaction. 

DISTRIBUTING NEW TIES. 

6. When new ties are being distributed on his sec- 
tion, a foreman should be particular to so distribute 
them that it will not afterwards be necessary to haul 



64 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

them any great distance to where they are wanted. 
Hauling ties half a mile or more with a push car to 
where you want them, when they could as well have 
been put there with the train, is only a waste of time 
and labor. 

MAKE THE WORST PLACES SAFE FIRST. 

7. When the number of rotten ties on a section is 
very great, or when the bad ties are in bunches, from 
three to ten together in a rail length, making the track 
unsafe, always look to such places first, and get in 
enough new ties in these places to make them safe, and 
keep track in good gage. After you have done this, 
then will be time enough to commence putting in the 
new ties out of a face. 

When putting in new ties out of a face, if the old 
ties left in the track are not to gage, bring to the 
proper gage with new ones ; don't leave them an irreg- 
ular gage. 

TIES UNDER JOINTS. 

8. When supported joints are used and two on 
opposite sides of the track are not squarely opposite 
each other, never try to twist one tie around so as to 
make each end of it come under the center of a joint. 
This makes the joint weaker than any other part of 
the rail in proportion to the difference between the 
square joints. When rail joints pass each other so 
much that the center of each joint will not rest on op- 
posite edges of a good tie, put into track another tie, 
so that the center of each joint will rest on the center 
of the large end of either of the ties. Track is much 
better and easier to keep up to surface where there are 
plenty of ties under it. A good method for spacing ties 
is to have the space between all ties just wide enough 
to pass a track shovel up between them, Where cedar 



SUMMER TRACK WORK. 65 

ties are used there should be not less than seventeen 
to a thirty foot rail length. This, however, depends on 
the weight of rail and conditions of traffic, and is gen- 
erally regulated by special instructions. 

ESTIMATING NEW TIES FOR REPAIRS. 

9. In the fall of the year, or at any other time that 
section foremen are requested to send their roadmas- 
ters an estimate of the number of new ties wanted for 
repair of track on their sections, the foreman should 
make a personal examination of every tie in the track 
in his charge, working with an adze and counting 
every rotten or broken tie which must be removed from 
track before the end of another year. In the statement 
should also be included the number of ties wanted to 
repair his side tracks, and any extra ties wanted to fill 
wide spaces, which may have been omitted when the 
track was first laid. If a record is kept of such esti- 
mates the foreman will find it convenient to refer to 
later on when distributing ties, as he will then know 
exactly how many are needed at each place on his sec- 
tion. 

COUNTING THE BAD TIES. 

10. When the bad ties are counted, each one should 
be examined, and tried with a pick, if necessary. Do 
not run over the track on a hand car, carelessly count- 
ing the ties as you go, nor make an estimate of the 
number of ties wanted by guess. The number of ties 
wanted each year for repairs is an important item of 
expense to a railroad company, and all estimates for 
new ties should be made as accurate as possible. 

WIDE SPACES. 

11. When putting in new ties track foremen should 
see that all wide spaces are filled between the old ties 
which were too far apart when the track was laid, or 



66 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

where other foremen neglected to space them prop- 
erly, putting in two for one, or three for two wherever 
necessary. 

REMOVE BAD TIES WHEN BALLASTING. 

12. When a track is being ballasted with gravel, 
stone or other material, all the bad ties should be re- 
placed by new ones as fast as the track is ballasted. 
The work of changing ties is more easily done when 
ballasting, and costs less ; and the track does not have 
to be disturbed again for a much longer period. Al- 
though it is contrary to general practice, it is held by 
some authorities on track work that when surfacing 
track it would be cheaper in the end to remove all ties 
that will not last two years instead of one year only. 
If this was done a piece of track put in good shape this 
year would not have to be rooted up again next year. 
If a foreman must go over every rail in his section 
each year in order to renew ties he will have little 
chance of getting ahead of his work. 

TWISTED TIES. 

13. Foremen putting new ties into the track should 
adze off the edge at the ends of all twisted ties, suf- 
ficiently to give the base of the track rails a level sur- 
face to rest on for the full width of the tie, at each end 
of it. 

TIES AT HIGHWAY CROSSINGS. 

14. When new ties have been distributed along the 
track, the section foreman should go over his section 
immediately after the distributing train, and remove 
to a safe distance all ties which are too close to the 
track rails, or in a dangerous position. All ties on the 
ground close to highway or farm crossings should 
either be put into the track at once, or removed to some 
place where there would be less danger of their being 



SUMMER TRACK WORK. 67 

stolen, or obstructing the highway. All ties should be 
in square piles of about seventy-five each. Section 
foremen should not overlook any crossings when put- 
ting in ties; the plank should be taken up, the track 
examined, and all the new ties needed put in there. 
REMOVE THE BARK. 

15. The bark should be removed from all hewed 
or round timber used in railroad construction, before 
it is put into service in the ground, or above the 
ground. 

Bridge piles will remain sound much longer, if the 
bark is removed, and they are allowed to season, before 
they are put in the ground, because the water which 
falls on the wood above the surface of the ground, soon 
evaporates, and leaves the timber in a good, dry con- 
dition. If the bark is allowed to remain, it prevents 
evaporation of the sap, or other moisture, for a much 
longer time, and therefore induces decay. The same 
may be said of fence posts, and there is considerable 
loss occasioned by nails or other fastenings not secur- 
ing a firm hold on the wood, where they are driven 
through the bark. 

In the case of track ties, the bark, if not removed, 
assists materially the process of decay, and it i»s also 
a continual source of annoyance to the track men when 
tamping or repairing the track, and dangerous on ac- 
count of fire. The best time to remove the bark from 
ties is during the winter months, before the ties are 
distributed along the track. A number of roads are 
using preservatives, or "pickling" their ties, to increase 
their life. It certainly pays to do so, not only on ac- 
count of the increased life of the tie, but principally be- 
cause it effects a great saving annually in the cost of 
removing ties, and thus removes the necessity of dig- 
ging up track that may be in good line and surface, 



68 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

simply to take out the rotten ties. The life of ties has 
been doubled and tripled, showing an immense saving 
in the cost of tie renewals. 

OLD TIES. 

16. The best way to dispose of the old ties, which 
are taken out of the track, is to get rid of them with 
as little expense and handling as possible. After the 
section men receive what old ties they require for fire- 
wood, the balance should be traded for work, or given 
away to people living along the road, with the under- 
standing that the old ties be removed at once, after 
they are taken from the track. 

There is a large amount of labor wasted in picking 
up, hauling, piling up and burning old ties which had 
better be devoted to improving the track. In most 
sections of the country where timber is scarce, the 
farmers living along the track will do plowing or grad- 
ing, or give labor on the track equivalent to the value 
of old ties. 

AVERAGE LIFE OF TIES; 

17. The average life of ties can only be determined 
in localities where they are used. Ties made from the 
same timber will rot quicker in one kind of soil or bal- 
last than they will in another. The climate also affects 
the life of a tie, as also does the amount of traffic over 
the road, the width of rail base, etc. 

Another point to consider, when calculating the life 
of a tie, is the condition in which it is allowed to re- 
main in track. Some companies have all the old ties 
removed from track as soon as they will not hold a 
spike, while other roads' allow old ties to remain in 
track until they are entirely worthless. The latter roads 
gain another year's use of the ties, but it does not pay 
except in the case of an occasional tie, broken or rotten 



SUMMER TRACK WORK. 



69 



in the center, but still giving the rails a good support at 
the ends. Any tie which has begun to give away under 
the rail should at once be replaced by a new one. 
When bad ties are numerous it is impossible for track- 
men to repair the road without putting under new ties. 
18. TIE ACCOUNT FOR A YEAR. 





TIES RECEIVED. 


PUT IK 


TRACK. 


ON HAND. 




HardTies 


Soft Ties 


HardTies 


Soft Ties. 


HardTies 


Soft Ties. 


February 

March 


1000 

none 

300 


500 

100 

none 


none 

none 

1100 


none 
none 
200 


1000 
1000 
200 


500 
600 
400 










'.:::".:::': 































































Track foremen will find the above form a handy 
way to keep a correct account of ties handled on their 
seection. If it is necessary to keep account of more 
than two kinds of ties, additional columns may be put 
in under the three heads, 'Ties Received," 'Tut in 
Track," or "On Hand." However, most roads fur- 
nish blank forms for this purpose. 



CHAPTER VI.— CUTTING WEEDS. 

POINTS ABOUT WEEDING. 

i. Weeds on track should be cut clean with the 
shovel between the ties and out to a distance of at 
least 2'1 feet, when making first cutting and cut to bank 
line on fills and to ditch line in cuts at last cutting. 
When cutting weeds the ends of ties should be watched 
closely and any dirt that will interfere with their drain- 
age removed. On embankments, the weeds at a 
greater distance from the ends of ties than that men- 
tioned above should be kept cut down with a scythe or 
brush hook, as far out as the right of way limits, if the 
foreman is allowed men enough to perform this work 
without neglecting the track or other necessary work. 
A clean track is not by any means a safe track, and a 
foreman should not have his men mowing grass and 
weeds along the right of way, unless the help he is 
allowed and the condition of his track at the time will 
admit of it. Before commencing to cut weeds a fore- 
man should grind on the inside of the blade any new 
shovels he is about to use and bevel them back from 
the edge about five-sixteenths of an inch. He should 
also carry a flat file to use when necessary, and never 
allow his men to hammer shovels on the edge of the 
blade, as this practice causes pieces to break out of the 
front of shovels and render them almost useless. A 
foreman should watch his men when cutting weeds and 
see that the weeds are cut under the surface of the 
ground, as those which are only taken off above the 
ground commence growing immediately after being 



-CUTTING WEEDS. 71 

cut. When weeds are cut in the center of a track or on 
an embankment, the dirt which comes on the shovel 
together with the weeds should not be thrown down 
the embankment, but be either turned over or allowed 
to remain where it was moved from. The practice of 
shaving off the embankment one or two inches every 
time weeds are cut is bad, and should not be tolerated, 
as the loose dirt thrown down the hill soon washes 
away, and each additional weed cutting of this kind 
weakens the shoulder, makes the fill narrower, and in 
time allows the ends of ties to project over and track 
•to settle for want of a sufficient foundation. 

When cutting weeds, always have your men cut on 
separate rail lengths, as this relieves the monotony of 
the work; it also acts as a stimulus, making each one 
anxious to do his part of the work in time to take his 
place in turn with the other men. 

WEEDS ON HEAVY GRADES. 

2. If a section foreman's help is so limited that it is 
not possible for him to keep all of the track in his 
charge clear of grass and weeds during the summer 
months, he should commence part way up the heaviest 
grades on his section, and cut the weeds clean out of 
the track to the top of the grade and down the same 
distance on the opposite side. This will enable heavy 
trains to go through without any inconvenience, and 
the weeds in the sags can be cleaned out afterwards as 
the foreman has the time to do it. 

If the section is all level track you can follow the 
same plan, cutting the weeds a quarter of a mile or 
more in one place, occasionally skipping a piece. This 
will enable an engine to gain speed enough where the 
track is clear, to haul the train without slipping, over 
places where the weeds are not cut. 



72 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

TO LESSEN WEED CUTTING. 

3. The labor of weed cutting on a dirt-ballasted 
track may be lessened a great deal by work done on 
the section in the spring before the weeds become 
•troublesome, by the following method: At all points 
where a foreman puts a number of new ties in the 
track near together, he should stop long enough to 
surface up the track, line and dress it out of a face, 
and by this means kill the young weeds, or at least 
retard their growth at that place. After a foreman is 
well advanced with the work of putting in ties, some of 
the old ties may be traded to farmers living near the 
track for plowing a couple of furrows along on each 
side of the track ten or fifteen feet from the rail, and in 
a line parallel with the track, keeping a little outside 
the bottom of the track embankment. Have this work 
done where it is high and narrow, especially where 
the shoulder of the track outside the ties has been 
weakened by surface washing or from constant weed 
cutting in previous years. 

After the plowing has been done the foreman 
should take his men and level up all low spots in the 
track and line it up ready to fill in and dress. Then 
put part of the men to work on each side of the track 
and have them cut the plowed sod into handy lengths 
and lay them along at the ends of the track ties with 
the grass side down, and fill the balance of the track 
in the center and between the ties with material taken 
from the bottom of the newly plowed furrows and 
dress and finish the track with it. This work should 
be continued as long as you can spare the time from 
other necessary track work and by the time regular 
weed cutting begins you will have one or two miles of 
first-class mud-track with all the old grass or weeds 



CUTTING WEEDS. 



73 



killed. The track will be strengthened and kept in 
better line, and, there being no weeds in the material 
taken from the plow furrows for ballasting, you will 
be saved the necessity of cutting much weeds on that 
piece of track all summer, and all your other work will 
be advanced proportionately. 

In connection with this subject attention may be 
called to the fact that quite recently extensive experi- 
ments have been made on some of the prominent roads 




sprinkling roadbed with oil, for the purpose of pre- 
venting excessive dust raised by fast trains. The ob- 
served effects 'have been very gratifying. Not only 
does the oil prevent the former clouds of dust, but it 
has proven useful in other ways; the oil acts as a tie- 
preserving agent, prevents the water from soaking 
into the roadbed, and finally discourages the rapid 
growth of grass and weeds. The oil is applied on cin- 
der, sand, gravel, or earth-ballast, with equally good 
results, and many Western roads are now making ex- 
tensive tests for both destroying the weeds and grass, 



74 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

also to prevent the heaving of track by frosts. Any 
evolution which will relieve the track department of 
weed cutting and at the same time allay the dust will 
soon meet with general approval. 

We show herewith in Fig. 13 a section and a plan 
of the Q. & C. oil sprinkling car. A 4-inch pipe runs 
the full length of car with rubber hose attachments to 
oil supply, which is carried in ordinary tank cars; to 
this main pipe other pipes are attached by rubber hose 
so that they can be raised or lowered according to the 
surface of roadbed. Each side sprinkler is adjusted by 
a hand wheel with chain attached to vertical staff sup- 
porting outer end of pipe. The rails are protected 
from the oil by a suitable device, as shown in sectional 
view. 

TOOLS FOR WEED CUTTING. 

4. Although a shovel is the tool most commonly 
used for cutting weeds on railroads, tools, such as are 
shown in Figs. 14 and 15, are now being gradually 
substituted on many roads on account of their superi- 
ority in many respects. In the first place, they are 
more convenient for the men to Use, are not so tire- 
some, and can be handled with greater ease, the men 
standing in an upright position, when cutting weeds 
with them, instead of a stooped or bending over posi- 
tion, which must be assumed with a short-handled 
shovel. From one-sixth to one-fourth more weeds may 
be cut in a day with this tool than can be done with a 
shovel. They are less expensive than shovels, and are 
therefore more economical to use, and the dirt or bal- 
last, which would be lifted by a shovel and wasted by 
careless men is not disturbed by the tools shown, when 
weeds are cut, but remains in its original position in the 
center of track or on the shoulder of embankment. 



CUTTING WEEDS. 



75 



This last advantage alone is a sufficient reason for their 
general introduction on all roads in preference to 
shovels. 

The weed cutting tool, shown in Figures 14 and 15, 
should have a blade made of very thin, hard steel. The 




FIG. 14. 



blade of the hoe, as manufactured for garden use, when 
properly tempered, is the correct thing, because, al- 
though the edge gradually wears away, yet it never re- 
quires sharpening, as thicker blades would on account 
of coming in contact with stone and gravel. 

Section foremen can improve the appearance of 
their track greatly and save considerable labor by bolt- 




FIG. 15. 

ing a piece of timber to the end of the hand car, pro- 
jecting far enough out on the side of track to attach 
an iron rod with a small steel shovel at the end of it, 
which will mark the outside line for cutting weeds as 
the car is pushed ahead on the track. A still better 
way is to attach a thin steel wheel, which offers less 
resistance to the motion of the car. 



CHAPTER VII.— BALLASTING. 

BALLAST. 

I. If stone is difficult to obtain, a good track can be 
made with gravel and stone combined for ballast, than 
when either of these materials is used alone. The foun- 
dation for the track should be laid with broken stone, 
and above the stone should be placed a quantity of 
coarse gravel sufficient to bed the ties, surface the 
track, and dress it. Where gravel and stone are used 
together, as above stated, the stone aeed not be broken 
as small or uniform in size as where stone is used alone 
for ballast. Gravel and stone when used for track bal- 
last have, each, advantages peculiar to themselves. 
Stone makes the most solid foundation, drains the track 
best, does not freeze in cold weather, does not grow 
weeds, will not wash, and makes very little dust. On 
the other hand, gravel is easier to procure along most 
roads, costs less than stone, is more elastic, not so 
wearing on track ties and rails, or the rolling stock 
as much as stone, drains the track well and does not 
grow many weeds. It also possesses superiod advant- 
ages in handling, little more than half as much labor 
being required to surface a given amount of track as 
when stone ballast is used; and all kinds of track re- 
pairs, especially changing ties, can be made much 
quicker and cheaper in gravel than in stone ballast. 
Two car loads of gravel to a thirty-foot rail length, laid 
upon a layer of broken stone twelve inches thick, will 



BALLASTING. 77 

make a first-class roadbed, but the proportions of 
gravel or stone used for ballast should depend on the 
kind of bottom over which the track was laid, the cost 
of materials and the amount which could be furnished. 
Cinders will be found equally effective as a ballast, 
except in very wet cuts, where stone should be used, 
and are cheaper than either stone or gravel, inasmuch 
as the cost of loading is an expense that cannot be 
avoided. Six inches of cinders will absorb about one 
inch of rainfall, and for this reason will keep the foun- 
dation beneath the ballast dry. They are superior to 
any other ballast on clay fills or gumbo bottom's, and 
are sure death to weeds. 

SURFACE LEVELS. 

2. When it is intended to ballast several miles of old 
railroad, or when ballasting track out of a face behind 
tracklayers, levels should be given by the engineers 
just as for bedding ties, with only this difference, that 
the top of the level stakes should be the surface level 
of the track rails. These level stakes could be arranged 
so as to answer for lining track, like center stakes, and 
in all cases where track is newly ballasted, provision 
s'hould be made for putting it in perfect line, more espe- 
cially curve track which should be lined as originally 
located. 

BEFORE BALLASTING TRACK. 

3. All track that is about to be ballasted with cind- 
ers, gravel or stone should be cleaned out to a level 
with the bottom of the ties, and the dirt taken out 
should be put along the shoulder of the grade, to 
strengthen it and save the ballast from washing away. 
Deep sags should always be raised up the required 
height before track is ballasted. It is a bad policy and 
a waste of material to increase the depth of ballast in 



78 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

order to level up a deep sag in the grade. If the dirt 
between the ties in a new track is not taken out before 
putting under ballast of cinders or gravel, it soon 
mixes with the ballast used, and works gradually to 
the top in wet or low places, making the labor of re- 
pair more difficult, and growing more weeds. Where 
the ballast is of sufficient thickness, or in taking up 
sags, or. where it is intended to ballast one-half mile or 
more, the digging out can be omitted, provided there 
be no particular reason to keep the track down to a 
certain grade. Digging out track is very expensive, 
and should not be done except on top of grades, in clay 
cuts, or any point where it is intended to ballast only a 
short stretch of track. The grade on high embank- 
ments before receiving ballast of gravel or cinders, 
should be made at least fourteen feet wide, and as much 
wider as is possible without too great an expense. 
WHEN TO BALLAST. 

4. On Northern railroads, track should not be bal- 
lasted earlier than May 15th or June 1st. The ground 
should have time to settle, and the heaving to go down. 

BALLASTING. 

5. W'hen a foreman is putting ballast under the 
track he should raise the track out of a face, taking out 
all light sags where there is enough material to do it. 

RAISING TRACK. 

6. The following is one of the best methods of rais- 
ing track to a level surface : 

Take a piece of board two inches by four inches, 
and five feet long, place it across the track, and cut 
notches in it three inches deep, near the ends, so that 
it will fit between the track rails like a gauge. Put this 
board on a high place in the track about ten or twelve 
rail lengths ahead of where you will commence to raise 



BALLASTING. 79 

the track, shim it up at the end to a perfect level, at 
whatever height will be the top surface level of the 
track rails after they are raised at that place; you may 
then go back and begin surfacing. Test with board be- 
fore tamping inside rails. 

When sighting track, have each joint raised and 
tamped one-fourth of an inch higher than the top of the 
sighting board, and on reaching the last joint, raise 
and bring it to a level with the finished track by strik- 
ing down on the tie once or twice with a sledge, or 
other heavy tool. The center of the rail should only be 
raised to a level with the joints. 

The man sighting track should sit at least sixty feet 
back of the joint which is being raised, and ninety feet 
back is better, because the long surface of rails raised 
assists the eye to more accurately sight a true and level 
line ahead. When trackmen sight at the first joint 
back of the one which is raising, light sags are apt to 
get into the surface of the track unnoticed, as swings 
do when men stand too close to a place in track when 
they are lining. 

Use two jacks when surfacing with a large gang of 
men, a heavy jack for the joints, and a lighter one for 
lifting the centers of the rails. Do not allow the jack 
men to lift up rail centers high enough to spring the 
rails, and always have the jack set in ahead of the joint 
next to be raised, except when the rail is surface bent 
in the quarter behind the joint. Tamp up the tie ahead 
of the joint with the joint tie when raising track more 
than two inches. This prevents the joints from hook- 
ing over and making it necessary to go back and raise 
them a second time. 

Always sight curve-track along the inside of the 
rails. In that way you can see further and better. 



80 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

When making a "run-off" for trains be sure to have it 
long enough to let them over it easily. Time can be 
saved by only tamping three ties solid ahead of the last 
joint raised. The material can be thrown loosely under 
the balance of the "run-off" and the track let down 
upon it. 

Have your men well organized, each one working 
in his proper place, and if you employ new men pair 
them with older hands. If you have a gang of four- 
teen or sixteen men work them as follows: Put two 
men tamping out ends of ties on each side of the track, 
four men tamping the centers of ties inside the rails, 
and two men with the jack. The balance of the gang 
may be divided, a part of them filling in the ballast 
ahead of the men tamping and the others filling in be- 
hind the men tamping. If you work your men so that 
they will be about evenly divided on each side of t'he 
track they will be more apt to compete with each other 
and help forward the work. You can see at a glance 
whether each one performs his share of the work or not 
and you will also be prepared to finish up a piece of 
track quicker, when necessary, than if the men are al- 
lowed to straggle along and work where they please. 

For inexperienced men it is a good method to sight 
track over the tops of two small blocks which are of an 
equal height with the sighting board or a painted line 
upon it. The man with the track-jack carries one 
block, and when the top of this block is placed on a 
rail joint and comes up level with the sight-board and 
the top of the track-sighter's block, the joint is high 
enough. These blocks are not used when sighting the 
center of the track-rail. 

RAISE BOTH SIDES. 

7. It is best to raise both sides at once when bal- 



BALLASTING. 81 

lasting, as track raised and tamped on one side before 
it is on the other always has a space not tamped under 
the rail, on the first side, when the opposite side is 
brought up to level. The center of ballasted track 
should never be tamped solid; it will be enough to fill 
under the center of the ties without tamping very solid. 
About eighteen inches inside the rails on each side of 
the track will be enough of the inside of the ties to 
tamp solid. It should be remembered, however, that 
it is a rare thing to find two men who use the same 
method of raising track. One would be surprised at 
the wide difference in the proceedings of foremen while 
raising track. One from long practice will be skilled 
in his particular plan and seem to make excellent prog- 
ress, but if ordered to raise track according to some 
other method he may make no headway whatever. As 
it seems to be a matter of experience or judgment, 
each foreman should be permitted to follow his own 
ideas, so long as the results attained prove satisfactory. 
SOLID CENTERS. 

8. Where the weight of the engine and the cars 
bears most on the center of the ties, great numbers 
of them break, especially ties sawed square, hence the 
necessity of using ties 9 ft. 6 in. long. On Northern 
roads, when the frost is leaving the ground in the 
spring, the ends of ties thaw out first, and where they 
are very solid in the center they rock under the weight 
of a train and the track slides out of line. 

HIGH PLACES. 

9. Short high points in the track to be ballasted 
should not be raised at all if they are higher than the 
surfaced track, but should be let down, if this requires, 
less labor than to surface up the track to the high 
point. 



82 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

UNIFORM TAMPING. 

10. The secret of putting up good smooth track 
that will remain so a long time, lies in having your 
men well organized and in getting them to work as 
nearly alike as possible; uniformity in the work is 
everything. A first-class track can be ballasted with- 
out tamping it with either tamping pick, bar or shovel 
handle, where sand or gravel is used, by having the 
men put the material to place under all the ties with 
the shovel blade, tamping only the joint ties, and pick- 
ing up the low places after some trains have passed 
over it. 

A question which is frequently asked is, "Should 
the tie be tamped throughout its entire length?" In 
answering this in true Yankee fashion, it can be said : 
"Does a man, in building a house, only support it at 
the four corners?" Unquestionably a tie should be 
tamped throughout, so as to furnish as solid a bearing 
as possible for the rail ; but care should be taken that 
it does not "become centerbound," or, in other words, 
the middle of the tie so supported as to cause the track 
to rock. On double track roads it will assist the gen- 
eral condition of the track to tamp the leaving side of 
the tie the harder and the last, thus forming a wedge 
and arresting any slight forward movement. 

Although more expensive in the first cost, stone, if 
rightly selected, will give the best results and be the 
most economical ballast to maintain. In addition, it is 
appreciated by the traveling public, owing to the ab- 
sence of dirt and dust. 

DRESSING BALLASTED TRACK. 

11. If soil or loam is used it should be filled in the 
center about three inches in depth and slope down and 
outward, so as to leave about two inches of open space 



BALLASTING. 



83 



under the rail and then carried out so that the ends of 
the ties will be at least one inch above the dirt in order 
to provide necessary drawings. If the ballast used is 
coarse gravel, or cinders, and there is sufficient ballast 
under the track to drain it well, it is the best when 
dressing the track, to fill up between the outer ends of 
the ties with ballast, leaving it level with the top of the 




FIG. 16. 

ties and then putting a good heavy shoulder of the 
ballast outside the ends of the ties, dividing the ma- 
terial evenly on each side of the track. The shoulder 
of track should be of a regular width. Where there is 
a surplus, put it at weak places. This, however, is gen- 
erally Tegulated by the Standard Sections of Roadbed, 
whic'h are getting adopted more and more by the dif- 
ferent railway companies; in Fig. 16 is shown a dia- 
gram of roadbed section ballasted with gravel and 




FIG. 17. 



broken stone; Fig. iy shows roadbed section for single 
track in a rock cut, while Figs. 18 and 19 show stand- 
ard double-track sections for gravel ballast on the L. 
S. & M, S. Ry., and Figs. 20 and 21 standard sections 



84 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



rf- 



w 






- TO.""' - "• 

. ... 



« i 



'*-*- s«l* -flj 



*V«ji-« 



BALLASTING. 



85 



„*... 



* * 



Oo 



w O 



*-.« 



86 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

for ballasting with gravel or stone on the N. Y., L. E. 
& W. R. R. 

A DAY'S WORK. 

12. Sixty feet, or two rail lengths, of finished track 
ballasted per man, per day, is generally considered 
fair work for a surfacing crew. If possible, a foreman 
should finish up, before leaving for home, all the track 
raised during the day, as a heavy shower of rain, or a 
storm of -now and sleet will injure any track which is 
left open and not filled in the center between the ties. 

A little judgment will enable any foreman to so ar- 
range the work that, when himself and his men get 
through work in the evening, the track where they 
were working will be in good shape, and' safe, if they 
were not to return again for several days. It is very 
important that all track should be filled in and dressed 
up as fast as it is surfaced, in order to preserve a good 
line on the rails. Track which is not filled between the 
ties will not stay in line. No material should be piled 
upon or around the track which would in any way stop 
the free passage of water which falls on the track. 
REFUSE BALLAST IN CUTS. 

13. Only the cleanest of gravel ballast should be un- 
loaded in cuts to ballast track with. Where it is nec- 
essary (in order to get rid of them in the pit) to haul 
out on the track, together with the gravel, large stones, 
grass, sods, etc., they should always be dumped on an 
embankment where they will assist in strengthening 
the fill. If they are placed in cuts they must be re- 
moved after the track is ballasted so that the time spent 
at this work is wasted. This lost labor amounts to con- 
siderable When many miles of ballast is handled. There 
are very few gravel pits where an occasional train of 
clean grave 1 cannot be procured, and even where part 



BALLASTING. 87 

of the train load is composed of poor material, when 
unloading it, the worst cars can be cut off and left out- 
side the end of the cut, and the cleanest gravel un- 
loaded inside. 

. HAVE THE TRACK READY. 

14. When ballasting track or raising it to surface, 
the foreman should so arrange his work that he will 
have the track ready for trains when due to pass there. 
He should make a "run-off" at the last rail of track 
raised, and outer ends of ties should at least be tamped 
up before a train is allowed to pass over it. The length 
of the "run-off" should be in proportion to the height 
the track is raised. Never make a "run-off" too short'; 
it is better to flag a train and hold it until you are ready, 
than to risk surface — bending the rails, or wrecking the 
train. Foremen ballasting track should always pro- 
tect themselves against wild trains by keeping a flag 
out against them and off the time of regular trains. 

HIGH RAISING. 

15. When track is raised more than six inches high, 
to put ballast under it out of a face, the foreman em- 
ployed to do the work should be thoroughly competent 
and reliable. One foreman should work the larger part 
of the surfacing gang, and with them lift the track, 
tamp the ties, and do a part of the filling, leaving the 
track behind him with a true surface, perfectly level 
and in good line. Working some distance behind the 
first gang another foreman with a smaller crew of men 
should do the finishing work. This gang should be 
about two days behind the first gang, so that any poor 
tamping or weak places may be fully developed. He 
should carry, besides his other tools, a full set of tamp- 
ing bars and raise up to surface all depressions in the 
surface of the track made by trains which passed over 



88 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

it after the front gang left it. Every piece of track 
taken up to surface by the second gang, should be 
tamped solid to a perfect surface with tamping bars, 
they should also put a true line on the rails and fill in 
the balance of the gravel, and dress up the sides and 
center of the track, moving all surplus ballast with 
their push car to points along the line where it is need- 
ed to make the shoulder of a uniform width. 

GRAVEL FOR ONE MILE OF TRACK. 

16. Allowing an average of thirty-three feet for 
each car length, including the space between the cars, 
one hundred and sixty cars of gravel will reach over 
one mile of track. If this amount of gravel is unloaded 
by hand, or plowed off from the cars, which is a better 
way, and if the trains average about eight yards of 
gravel to the car, there will be gravel ballast deposited 
along the track equal to six inches in thickness, twelve 
feet wide on top, and twelve feet six inches wide at the 
bottom, for the entire length of one mile of track. De- 
duct from the above amount of gravel about one-half 
for filling between the track ties and for dressing the 
center of the track after it has been surfaced up, and 
there is still left a balance of about three inches in 
thickness to be put under the bottom of the track ties. 
If two cars of gravel are unloaded at one place, the 
depth of gravel ballast under the track ties is increased 
about threefold. 

The only loss from the second carload of gravel is 
about one-twelfth, which goes into the side slope of 
the shoulder of the fill. 

The second car leaves a load of gravel 8^ inches in 
thickness beneath the track ties. This is a good ar- 
gument in favor of ballasting with not less than two 
carloads of gravel in a place. One carload in a place 



BALLASTING. 89 

makes a very poor job, especially where it is put under 
the track without digging out the mud from between 
the ties. 

Where the sub-grade is well drained and solid, a 
first-class track can be made by ballasting with two cars 
of gravel in a place, and to do the work in this way, 
estimates may be taken at the rate of three hundred 
and twenty-five cars of gravel to the mile of track. The 
embankment should not be less than fourteen feet wide 
on top, and should be made sixteen feet wide, if possi- 
ble, before putting on the gravel, to prevent the ballast 
from washing away. Gravel may be loaded in pit for 
75 cents per car, making the cost for one mile, one car 
to the rail length, about $125; in some pits the work 
may be done cheaper by building a trap and scraping 
the gravel onto cars with horses, or by employing a 
steam shovel. 

LEVEL TRACK IN YARDS. 

17. The track in all yards should be surfaced level 
throughout their entire length, and all tracks running 
parallel with each other should be of the same height 
when possible to have them so. When tracks have 
once been put to a uniform level surface, no part of 
them should be raised again higher than the rest of 
the yard unless it is intended to raise the level of the 
whole yard. Many inexperienced foremen, in charge 
of yards, think it is necessary every time they repair 
track, to surface it a little higher, and a difference of 
several inches in the heights of the tracks may be seen 
in some yards. This is a harmful and senseless policy 
and should not be tolerated. 

HOW TO LEVEL YARD TRACKS. 

18. A simple method by which to get tracks which 
run parallel to each other, to the same height, is as fol- 



90 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

lows : First, put up the main track properly, then use a 
straight edge from the nearest rail of the adjoining 
track in order to raise it to a level with the main track. 
You can then move to a point several rails ahead on 
the main track and repeat the operation. After this 
you can raise and sight, — level the track on the siding 
between the two points which you have made level 
with the main track. A foreman can level a track 
lengthways somewhat in the same way as above de- 
scribed. 

Rule. — Run the level and a straight edge on the top 
of two or three stakes running parallel with the track 
to be leveled, and do the same at a place some distance 
from that point. Then sight over the tops of the stakes 
at both points, and have a man drive stakes between 
the two places where you have leveled, until the stakes 
which he has driven are at the same height as those 
you have leveled with the level and straight edge. The 
top level of the stakes will be the level of the track 
rails. In important yards the company's engineers 
generally give level stakes for all tracks. 
GRAVEL PITS. 

19. A few words about the gravel pit will not be 
out of place in this book. 

On roads where stone, or other kinds of ballast is 
scarce, or cannot be procured, a gravel pit along the 
line is very desirable. There are very few roads that 
cannot find at least one or two gravel pits along a 
division. 

After the gravel pit has been purchased, and when 
the work of removing material is about to commence, 
the foreman in charge of the work should thoroughly 
examine the lay of the land and find out how his track 
must be laid in order to get the deepest face of gravel 



BALLASTING. 91 

to work on. Of course, at the same time, the best loca- 
tion for the track must be arranged for the accommo- 
dation of trains, and this should be done with a view 
to future improvements. 

The track should always be longer than the face of 
the gravel in the pit, so that one, ten, or any number of 
cars could be loaded without danger of spoiling the 
line of the pit face. This is very important, because 
where a short track is put in on account of a handy 
place to put in the switch, or for the reason that there 
is not much gravel needed at that time, the face of the 
pit contracts and becomes so s'hort that the loading 
place is only like a sink hole in the ground, and it soon 
becomes difficult for an engine to pull out of the pit 
more than two or three cars at a time, making nec- 
essary six or seven switches to do what could be done 
in one, with a good track. Besides this, there are 
other reasons why a short track should not be used. 
The men loading the gravel keep lining the track over 
as the bank recedes and there is soon a heavy curve 
in the track which follows around the edge of the ex- 
cavation, so that it is only a short time until the track 
has to be torn up and the work all done over again. 
Now is the time the loss occasioned by gouging a 
hole in the bank is discovered. If the track is laid 
along the face of the pit, cars can only be loaded at 
either end of the pit, and there is loss of time from 
placing them, switching, etc., and perhaps the two 
ends of the pit next the track are not long enough to- 
gether to allow a full train of gravel to be loaded at 
once, and there is no help for it except to work at the 
ends, until the gravel can be reached all along the 
track. 

Another argument in favor of a longer track is that 



92* THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

the face of the gravel can be increased in depth by 
lowering the track. 

Foremen in charge of loading gravel should see 
that the men load in one place until there is a space on 
that side of the track at least two or three feet lower 
than the ties and wide enough to let the track into it. 
It should then be lined over and the men could load 
on each side of the cars. Every foot that the face of 
gravel can be deepened makes the cost of loading it 
less, and reduces the proportion of top soil which 
mixes with the gravel. Men loading gravel on cars 
will load a greater number if paid by the car than in 
any other way. When the work of loading is not let 
to the men in the above way the foreman should divide 
his gang so many men to each car; this makes them 
compete with each other. 

The steam shovel, with a sufficient number of 
trains of ballast cars, is the best equipment to use for 
economically getting out gravel from the pit to the 
place where the track is to be ballasted, and for dis- 
tributing the same. 

GRAVEL VS. WEEDS. 

20. When ballast is scarce or the business of a rail- 
road will not warrant an expenditure equal to ballast- 
ing the whole road, it is a wise policy to put gravel 
ballast on a part of each section, more especially on 
long sections with only small gangs of men to keep up 
the track. When other things are equal, the gravel 
or other ballast should be put on that end of the sec- 
tion which is farthest from the section foreman's head- 
quarters. Besides the saving effected on a long sec- 
tion, by reducing the cost of cutting the weeds, the 
ballasted piece of track, being the best part of the 
road, will save for the company many dollars which 



BALLASTING. 93 

would otherwise be paid out for pumping the hand 
car the extra distance to and from work every day. 
The cost of cutting the weeds on eight miles of dirt 
ballasted track for one season, on many railroad di- 
visions, would pay for the loading and hauling of 
gravel, or cinders, and putting in first-class condition 
two miles of track or one-fourth of the eight-mile sec- 
tion. Putting the ballast under the track in small 
quantities at a time in one place need not cost the com- 
pany anything extra, as the section crews can do this 
as well as cut the weeds, and in most cases the work 
will be better done than by an extra gang. 
KINDS OF BALLAST. 

21. Locomotive Cinders. — These are used on ac- 
count of their cheapness. In wet cuts they are very 
desirable. 

Furnace Slag — This makes an excellent ballast, the 
principal objection being the difficulty of working 
when it takes a "set," owing to the lime contained 
therein. 

Burned Clay* — This is principally used in the West.' 
Almost any clay soil, easy to excavate, free from sand 
or vegetable matter, is suitable for ballast material. 
Gumbo probably makes the best, and requires less 
fuel to burn it than the brick clays. It is generally 
burned in piles, laid from two to four thousand feet in 
length, so placed as to be easily accessible by tracks. 
Fire is started with old ties or other wood, and when 
it is well under way the clay and coal are piled on in 
alternate layers, the clay being thrown up from the 
trench beside the fire. Various machines are used for 
this purpose. Some of them are on the principle of a 

•This information about burned clay is taken from Roadmasters' 
Proceedings. Of the substance used, locomotive cinders, furnace 
slag, burned clay, gravel and stone are the most Important, 



94 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

conveyor, clay being carried up on a belt. This, how- 
ever, tends to pulverize it more than is desired. There 
is a machine on the principle of the steam shovel,- 
which digs the clay and places it on the fire in lumps, 
which gives better results as to quality of the ballast. 
After it has been burned it can be loaded by steam 
shovel or by hand. Coal, if economically used in burn- 
ing this ballast, may be mixed as follows : Fifteen per 
cent, nut coal, 40 per cent, mixed coal, 45 per cent, 
slack. This mixture costs at some of the Western 
mines about 34 cents per ton, one ton of which will 
burn about four yards of ballast. The cost per cubic 
yard of ballast in the track is about $1.05, distributed 
as follows, the price for the first item being variable : 

Contract price for burning $ .38 

Average cost of coal 21 

Loading on cars 08 

Distributing 09 

Putting under track 22 

Interest and depreciation 04 

Land 01 

Miscellaneous expenses 02 

$1.05 
Gravel — This is used to a great extent by the ma- 
jority of roads, and when clean and about the size of 
a walnut gives most excellent results. 

Stone Ballast — Within the past few years stone has 
been used very considerably as a ballast, and from it 
the best results have been obtained, provided proper 
care has been exercised in its selection, as regards size 
and material entering into its composition. Undoubt- 
edly traprock and limestone are superior, as a soft ma- 
terial like ordinary sandstone breaks up and crumbles 
under working, forming in time simply a mass of mud 
under the ties. An excellent size is such as will pass 



BALLASTING. 95 

through a i|-inch ring. This will offer sufficient in- 
terstices to allow all water to pass, and is easily worked. 

Experiments have been made with three different 
sizes of traprock ballast. A bucket holding 12 quarts 
of water was taken and filled level with the top with 
stone that would pass through a 2^-inch ring ; water 
was then poured in, and it held 6^ quarts. Then' a 
half-inch smaller size was taken, and the same opera- 
tion gone through with, and it held 6\ quarts. Then 
i^-inch ballast was taken, and the test showed that 
it held 6 quarts. 

In order to get a comparative estimate of the 
velocity with which water would drain through these 
different sizes, under similar conditions, the same 
bucket was used, and four five-eighths inch holes bored 
in the bottom, 90 degree apart. By pouring in the 
same amount in each case, which was 6 quarts, with the 
coarse stone it passed through in 20 seconds, with the 
next size in 22 seconds, and with the smallest in 24 
seconds. A larger stone is not so good for tamping 
as one of such size as will pass through a i^-inch ring. 
At times the road bed will get into such condition as 
to retain water, and in this event, the smaller the stone 
the more solid will be the foundation, and the less 
amount of water it will hold. 

In view of these facts, it is conclusively proven that 
a small stone is much more profitable for ballast than 
a large one. And further, if the specifications require 
the size of ballast to be such as will pass through a ij- 
inch ring, the large stones which meet the require- 
ments in two dimensions but are large in the third, will 
be kept out. 

One of the uses of stone ballast is to arrest the 
springing action of the track, and to accomplish this, 
the deeper it is below the tie the more solid the riding 



96 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

will be. In no case should this be less than 12 inches, 
and if it were 2 feet decidedly better results would be 
obtained. Stone of the proper size and of sufficient 
depth will give more stable track than any other ma- 
terial that can be used for ballast. And, besides this, 
the drainage is nearer perfect. Care must be taken to 
have it properly screened at the quarry, so as to be as 
clean as possible. 

The one thing, above all others, which stands in the 
way of its use is, first cost and labor necessary to place 
it in position. A cubic yard will range anywhere from 
$1 to $1.20 in place. Considering a mile put up at the 
higher figure, it will require the expenditure of $4,200. 

The first cost of stone ballast being the largest item 
that faces the engineer in track laying, great care 
should be exercised in its selection; but after it is once 
in place and thoroughly tamped, provided the roadbed 
causes no trouble, it is as solid as the rock of Gibraltar. 

HANDLING OF BALLAST. 

22. In the majority of cases stone is unloaded by 
hand, but there are several devices to do away with this, 
and thus cheapen the first cost. The more important of 
these are the Rodgers ballast car and the method em- 
ployed by the B. & O. R. R. 

The B. & O. method is thus : The contractor fur- 
nishing the ballast quarries and crushes the stone, de- 
livering it on his own cars. The road furnishes the 
engine to haul these to the point of delivery. The con- 
tractor supplies the plow, cable and stationary engine 
on flat-car for operating, taking steam from the loco- 
motive boiler to operate his engine in running the plow, 
for all of which he receives 75 cents per cubic yard. 
The measuremeants are made by weight. They had 
constructed a box 3 feet cube ; it was filled with 



BALLASTING. 97 

crushed stone from each of the quarries and weighed ; 
the weight of this stone was taken as the standard for 
the weight of a cubic yard of crushed ballast from any 
particular quarry, and upon this basis they paid for all 
stone received. 



CHAPTER VIIL— RENEWAL OF RAILS. 

LAYING NEW STEEL. 

I. When steel rails were a new thing, and cost 
several times as much money per ton as they now do, 
the railroads which purchased them were very careful 
where they laid 1 them and how they were laid. The 
track had to be ballasted, smoothly surfaced, and filled 
up with good, sound ties, especially under the rail 
joints. 

None but the best of trackmen were employed to 
do the work, and special instructions were issued to 
the foremen how the rails should be handled and laid 
in the track; and the correct space between joints at 
the different temperatures was given, which could not 
be varied because expansion shims were furnished to 
be placed between the rails when being laid. Special 
provision was made for unloading the rails from cars 
without bending or twisting them. No kinky rails 
were put in the track in that condition, and a record 
was kept of the wearing qualities of each separate lot of 
steel rails. It was considered next to a sacrilege to 
cut off the end of a steel rail to make a connection or 
put in a new switch lead, the iron rail always being cut 
in preference, or proper lengths of steel being furnished 
for the switch lead. The results, in most cases, fully 
compensated for the pains taken when laying steel 
rails, and most of the railroad men who have had ex- 
perience doing this work can testify that rails so well 



RENEWAL OF RAILS. 99 

taken care of remained in service and lasted almost 
double as long a time as some of the steel rails laid 
nowadays. This in part may be attributed to the in- 
ferior qualities of some of the steel rails produced at 
the present time. 

Steel rails have become so common now that all 
new railroads constructing or old roads relaying their 
track use nothing else, and on many of these roads 
(although there may be a pretense to the contrary) the 
steel is often thrown down on rough grades and run 
over without ballasting. In fact, the policy of those 
in charge of the work seems to be, in some cases, not 
to take any better care of the new steel than they would 
of old, worn out iron. Although steel has now nearly 
replaced iron rails, the regulations for laying it, such 
as those mentioned in the beginning of this article, 
should not be altered in any particular. June, July 
and August are the best months for laying steel rails 
in the North and West, because during the summer 
months the conditions are more favorable for improv- 
ing the track. The ground is dry and subgrade solid. 
Ties are all in the track, or on the ground ready to 
be put it. Ballast supplies can be easily reached. There 
are better facilities for furnis'hing locomotives and cars 
to do the work, on account of lighter business on the 
roads. Last, but not least, the new rails may be laid at 
a time when there is the least variation in temperature 
and they are at or near their greatest expansion. 
HOW TO RELAY STEEL. 

. . 2. The method most generally practiced by track- 
men, when, relaying steel, is as follows: First, the. rails 
to be laid are ranged out along on the ends of the ties 
not bolted together. The work of ranging out the new 
rails and getting ready to lay them into track should be 

l» * C. 



100 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

done While trains are running so close together that 
there is not time to change a very large number at 
once. The time to put in new and take out old rails 
is when there is the longest time between the passage 
of trains over track during the day. Another part of 
the work in getting ready is to remove from the rails 
in the track all the bolts and spikes that can be taken 
out with safety. When everything is ready to lay in 
the new rails, a part of the men remove all of the spikes 
remaining in the track on one side of each rail. The 
inside spikes are generally the ones pulled out except 
when there is a difference in the width of the track and 
outside spikes on the other, or on both sides, in order 
to have the new iron or steel come to perfect gauge. 
While a part of the men are pulling spikes, etc., an- 
other part s'hould be throwing out of place the old line 
of rails and at the same time more of the men should 
be dropping in the new line of rails and others bolting 
and spiking them into place. Everything should be 
kept moving so that when the next train is nearly due 
there is nothing remaining to be done but making the 
connection between new and old rails where you in- 
tend to leave off, until the next line of new rails is 
ready to put in. The custom also prevails among some 
roadmasters and foremen of bolting the rails together 
before they are placed in the track. This is a mistake 
for several reasons. The principal objection is that 
the proper expansion cannot be kept between the rails. 
Also, if you wish to close up suddenly, there is the 
extra work of unbolting one of the joints. 

In laying new rail it is best to put in place one at 
a time; it is as expeditious as any other method, and 
better results are obtained. When a foreman wants to 
make his temporary connections to let trains pass, a 



RENEWAL OP RAILS. 101 

much better and quicker method than the old way of 
cutting a rail, every time a connection has to be made, 
is to keep on hand, ready for use, two rails about ten 
or fifteen feet long, cut tapering to a point on one end 
like those in split switches. When you want to make 
a connection you bolt the blunt end of these rails to the 
end of the last new rail put in, and lay the point end 
of short rail close up along the side of the next old rail, 
holding it to place with a shoe or clamp and spiking it 
to gauge. To put this s'hort rail to gauge it is neces- 
sary only to pull or spring the spikes enough to let the 
end of the old track rail spread a little, and let the point 
rail to gauge. The use of these two short point rails 
saves considerable time in making connection, as a 
foreman can work his men close up to the time that a 
train is due, putting in the new rails. An ordinary 
switch point can also be used for this purpose. If the 
new rail is of heavier section than the old, a good way 
is to have a six-foot piece of the new rail bolted to a 
switch point of the section of the old; then when it is 
desired to close up temporarily, this arrangement can 
be put in place very quickly. On double track roads 
always lay the rail so that trains will trail over the tem- 
porary connections. Never leave a switch point, used 
as just described, in the track over night. Always 
connect up the track properly before leaving it for 
any length of time. If joints are not furnished quick 
connection may be made by lapping the old and new 
rails in the same way a joint is used, except that the 
inside rail should be one-half inch light gauge and 
point in the direction the train is going. 

Where there are many trains passing to interfere 
with the work of laying rails, to put the rails in track 
in a string is the most economical method; but where 



102 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

few trains are run and steel gang can use nearly all 
the day for work without interruption the method of 
laying one rail at a time is the most economical and 
best way, as we have the added benefit of only handling 
the rails but once, and maintaining better expansion, 
as said above. 

Whether a gang lays steel one rail at a time or in 
a string makes little difference in the distribution of 
expansion, if the foreman knows his business. The 
most damage is done to track by unequal distribution 
of expansion caused by not putting in the joint ties 
and slot spiking the angle bars to them as fast as the 
work of relaying the rails progresses. 

AVERAGE LIFE OF STEEL RAILS. 

3. Owing to the difference in quality and in the 
amount of traffic over steel rails, it is very difficult to 
form a correct estimate of the average life of the same. 

An important item to be considered when figuring 
the life of track rails is the care they received when 
first laid, and how they were kept up to surface by the 
section men afterwards. Rails that are properly laid 
and are afterwards kept up to a good smooth surface, 
will wear and give good service from two to five years 
longer than rails of the same grade which have only 
been indifferently cared for. Every year that the life 
of a rail can be prolonged, it means a saving to the 
company of the interest for one year on the principal 
invested, and a proportionate part of the original cost, 
which is sometimes equal to the difference in value be- 
tween old and new rails, and in many cases the amount 
thus saved would pay for the track labor for several 
years. 

Good iron rails have been known to last, in service 
on the main track of a railroad doing a fair business, 



RENEWAL OP RAILS. 103 

eight and nine years, and steel rails fifteen years, but 
many brands wear out in less time. 

When their ends have become battered, rails are of 
little value in the main track of any road, where there 
is much business, and the joints cannot be kept up 
to a good surface, no matter what kind of ballast is 
put under them. The only remedy is to saw off the 
bad ends of the rails and use them in branches or side 
tracks, and when the rail is battered on both the joint 
and center, it is only fit for rolling mill scrap. Track 
foremen s'hould always remember that by keeping a 
smooth running surface on the rails is the only way 
they can demonstrate their superiority as good track- 
men. For such men there is always employment and 
good wages. One of the largest items of a railroad's 
expenses is caused through neglecting to keep a 
smooth surface on the track joints, either on account 
of incompetent foremen, or insufficient track forces. 
EVEN OR BROKEN JOINTS. 

4. There has been considerable discussion by track- 
men on the subject of broken or even joints. The ma- 
jority of track 'has 'heretofore been laid with even joints, 
but there lately have been many opinions expressed in 
favor of laying rails with what are called broken joints, 
which consists in placing the rail joint on one side of 
the track opposite to the center of the rail on the other 
side of the track. There are a few points in favor of 
the latter method whic'h are of sufficient importance to 
be worthy of consideration. 

On a curve track where the rails were not curved 
before being laid, the broken joint will assist to keep 
the track in line, because the center of the rail will re- 
tain the curve better than the joint; but if the rails are 
curved to the proper shape before being laid, the true 



104 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

curve line can be preserved as well without broken 
joints. It is also claimed that when the rails are laid 
with broken joints a better surface can be preserved 
at the joint, the smooth rail center on the opposite side 
preventing the car wheels from striking the ends of the 
rail so hard when passing over it, and this seems to be 
the chief reason for laying the rails that way. 

On the other hand, it is handier to lay track with 
even joints and to repair and surface it. Even joints 
on a rough track will remain level, and trains will ride 
smoother over them than would be the case over a 
track laid with broken joints under the same condi- 
tions. But a rough track on any railroad ought soon 
to be a thing of the past. Laying the rails broken 
joints doubles the work of placing joint ties and spac- 
ing them. 

DEFECTS IN STEEL RAILS. 

5. A self-evident fact is that the rail of the present 
day is not of the good quality of ten years ago, owing 
to its not being worked enough at the mill. 

Outside of the general line and surface, the princi- 
pal evils are pipes, gag marks and cinders, which re- 
sult in flaws. A pipe is caused by air bubbles in the 
metal, and when the rail is worn a certain amount this 
causes weakness, and consequently the head either 
cracks, or, if near the end, flattens out. Putting this 
through the rolls an extra time or two would have 
undoubtedly obviated it; or the same result could be 
accomplished by working it at a higher temperature. 

Gag marks occur in straightening the rail, and 
when they show themselves in the head cause great 
difficulty in keeping up the track, owing to the jolting 
motion imparted to the car. 

Cinder in the molten metal causes defects after the 



RENEWAL OF RAILS. 



105 



rail is rolled, in the nature of flaws and subsequent 

cracks. 

RAIL SECTIONS. 

6. As to the proper section there are a variety of 
ideas. The American Society of Civil Engineers, New 




York Central, New York, New Haven & Hartford 
and Pennsylvania ioo-pound sections are herewith 
given; their characteristics are shown by Figs. 22, 23, 
24 and 25. 

Owing to the heavy engines and cars of great 
weight being demanded by the traffic department to 
carry freight profitably, heavy rails are demanded to 
be used on the trunk lines of all railroads, and as the 



106 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



height gives vertical strength, in such heavy rails 
used, height should be the first consideration; at the 
present time six inches is giving good results. To 
give good wearing heads to such heavy rails, the pro- 
portion of metal in its head should be kept down to 
the minimum, as, owing to the present process of roll- 
ing steel rails at very great heat from a large ingot, a 




thick head will not give as good results as a thin head 
rail; and, though theoretically the base should be as 
wide as the height of the rail, it is being admitted at 
the present time, to get perfect base rails and allow the 
metal in the head to be homogeneous throughout, the 
rail base will have to be of less width than the height 



RENEWAL OE RAILS. 



10? 



of the rail. The web should also be thicker at the base 
than under the head, which in the high rail insures 
greater strength, as the tendency is to break at this 
point, if too weak. 

LEAVE CORRECT EXPANSION. 

7. Particular attention should be paid to the open- 
ing between the ends of such heavy rails, so as not to 

T ---r^—T 




-— -» 




FIG. 24. 

allow them to become open only far enough as con- 
traction demands in the coldest weather. This can 
only be accomplished by having the holes in the ends 
of the rails correctly drilled as regards their centers 
from end of the rail, and seeing that the bolts used to 
attach the joint to the rail ends are not in any position 



108 



THE TRACKMAN'S HEDPBR. 



but square across from outside of one bar to the out- 
side of the other joint. This means a tight fit for a cup- 
head oval-neck bolt in the bar in which it rests, and 
reduction of the size of hole in the other bar in which 
the thread of the bolt lies. 

In the laying of steel, particular attention should be 
paid to the opening left when rails are laid, governed 




FIG. 25. 

by the temperature at time of laying. This opening 
will become distorted unless the joint ties are tamped 
up into position and slot spikes driven in as designed 
to hold the opening between the rails as laid. This 
space between ends should be reduced to the mini- 
mum, which at low temperature should not exceed f 
inch. 



RENEWAL OF RAIDS. 109 

The length of rail generally used is 30 feet, but 
lately there have been experiments made to increase 
this. The Lehigh Valley Railroad have placed in track 
45-foot lengths, while the Pennsylvania have increased 
this to 60 feet. The advantage of the former is that 
there are 33 per cent, less joints, and the latter 50 per 
cent. The disadvantages are the difficulty of handling 
and the amount of opening which has to be left for ex- 
pansion. 



CHAPTER IX.— EFFECTS OF THE WAVE MO- 
TION OF RAIL ON TRACK. 

RAIL MOVEMENTS. 

I. As all the rail movements are on the principle of 
the lever, there is, of necessity, a rising and falling of 
same, or, in other words, an undulatory motion on the 
passage of every train, the principle of which is illus- 
trated in Fig. 26. The amount of this is dependent 




TRACK L/HD£fl PASS' bj LQA't 

FIG. 26. 

on the condition of the sub-grade, ballast, ties, rail and 
weight of the rolling stock. Any weakness in the 
drainage, ballast, ties or rail will at once show itself 
when put in use. If not corrected at once this will en- 
large, and the destruction it can cause is liable to be 
serious. The less substantial the superstructure the 
greater ballast compression there will be, and, of ne- 
cessity, rough-riding track. 

If water is permitted to lodge under the ties, in a 



EFFECTS OP THE WAVE MOTION. Ill 

short time they will churn, and, unless taken care of, 
will prove destructive. 

Movements or vibrations of any kind are objection- 
able in the track; and for that reason wood and stone 
are used to absorb these as much as possible. 

The undulatory motion of the rail has the following 
injurious effects: 

1. Compresses the tie in the ballast. 

2. Churns the ties. 

3. Displaces the ballast. 

4. Injures the roadbed. 

5. Injures the rail. 

6. Wears the angle bars. 

7. Wears the bolts. 

8. Raises the spikes. 

9. Cuts the ties. 

10. Wears the spikes. 

11. Wears the rail. 

12. Causes the rail to creep. 

BALLAST COMPRESSION. 

2. The different functions which a tie performs 
mus't be taken into consideration. 

1. It holds the rails to gauge. 

2. Supports the rails. 

3. Must be stable in the track. 

4. Distributes the weight of the passing wheel loads 
to the ballast and roadbed. 

5. Resists compression into the ballast. 

It is claimed by many that the ties act. as. abut- 
ments, and the rail deflections occur, between .these. 
From 'practical experiments this is an error; and as the 
Pennsylvania Railroad have recently been making 



112 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

tests in this direction, the letter from Mr. Bland, which 
is quoted below, will substantiate the above statement.* 

The thought now is to get the most perfect form of 
tie to best distribute the weight of the passing wheel 
loads to the ballast. Abroad, the frustum form of sup- 
port is used to a great extent, and this form has been 
long and favorably known by engineers for distribu- 
tion of concentrated loads. 
CHURNS THE TIES AND DISPLACES THE BALLAST. 

3. The foundation of all ties being loosely compact- 
ed material, any movement of the tie, or what is com- 
monly called "churning of the tie," necessarily throws 
unequal loading on the ballast at different times, causes 
its compression and movement, and destruction of the 
tie foundation. The wider the ties and the lighter the 
rail and the heavier the loads, the greater such move- 
ment must necessarily be. 

Assume, for instance, two wide ties and a light rail, 

*"The circumstances to which you refer, and of which you ask 
definite information, were as follows: 

"For about two weeks during October, 1898, we had an 'IV en- 
gine on the Pittsburg Division of the P., C, C. & St. L. Ry., for 
trial. This engine was of an eight-wheel class recently built by 
the P. R. R., for its fast and heavy passenger service. The weight 
was as follows: 

On front pair of drivers 48,300 rTounds 

On rear pair of drivers 45,300 pounds 

On standard truck 41,700 pounds 

Total 135,300 pounds 

"Some apprehension being felt as to the effect of these heavy 
wheel loads on our t*ack, the Chief Engineer, Superintendent of 
Pittsburg Division, Engineer Maintenance of Way and myself went 
out on the lines, rode on the engine and made some observations 
as to deflection of track under passing load. At a speed of fifteen 
miles an hour we found the track, as a whole, deflected (or, rather, 
subsided in the ballast) from 5-16 to 3-8 inch under the passing 
wheel load, which was, as you see, 24,000 pounds. It was also very 
evident that nearly all of this deflection was due to the subsidences 
of the ties in the ballast, and not to bending or deflection of the 
85-pound rail. Computing the deflection proper for 85-pound rail 
under a 24,000-pound wheel load, I found it to be 1-200 of an inch, 
an amount not discernible with ordinary measurements. The con- 
clusion reached by us all (and which has been verified by other 
observation) was, that what we heeded for the constantly growing 
weights of engine driver loads was not heavier rail, but better tie 
support; that is to say, more ties per rail to lessen the spans, and a 
width of tie proportionate to the heaviest driver load in use on the 
line in question." .„•_ 



EFFECTS OF THE WAVE MOTION. 113 

and over them a heavy wheel load, midway between the 
ties. This rail will bend under these conditions and 
take the form of a curve, thus throwing the wheel load 
on the near edge of each tie, producing an eccentric 
loading of the tie, greater compression under the edge 
of the tie that is loaded than on the opposite edge, and, 
necessarily, a slight movement of the tie to adjust itself 
to these conditions. When the wheel moves to the 
opposite side of either of these ties the conditions are 
reversed, and thus the churning takes place. If these 
ties could be made of a triangular section with the rail 
bearing on the apex of the triangle, the disturbing ac- 
tion illustrated above could not take place. As ties 
cut in this manner would, of course, crush and be prac- 
tically useless, the frustum is the next best form, and is 
consequently recommended. (See chapter on tie 
plates.) 

INJURIOUS TO THE ROADBED. 

4. This is a necessary sequence of the ballast dis- 
placement, and is augmented by the amount of water 
standing in pools on the bed. 

INJURIOUS TO THE RAIL. 

5. According to Professor Dudley, rails take a per- 
manent set, as regards wave motion, in one of three 
forms : 

1. Joint low and center high. 

2. Joint and center low, quarter high. 

3. Entire rail wavy. 

The first occurs in rails which are laid with the joints 
square or opposite; consequently the low places are 
found at the weakest point, the joints, while the cen- 
ters are high. 

The second form is met with in rails which are laid 
with their joints broken. The weak point being the 



114 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

joint, they deflect in time, and it also appears in the 
opposite rail, which is at the center. And on this line 
of reasoning, if it is low at one point it must be high at 
another, whic'h are the quarters. 

The third form appears in the rail where the ties 
have been tamped unevenly, there being alternate hard 
and soft spots in the bed. 

WEARS THE ANGLE BARS AND BOLTS. 

6. At the joints there are several parts working in- 
dependently — the two angle bars, the bolts, nuts, nut 
locks, rails, ties, and, -to a certain extent, the spikes 
and ballast. Now, the least particle of vibratory mo- 
tion destroys the mutual relationship between these 
parts, and a consequent wearing is the result. The 
principal wear is on top and underneath the bar, where 
the rail rests, and, in turn, where it rests on the rail. 
The bolt holes are also enlarged. The bolts, being a 
portion of the joint fastening, also wear, and in time 
are unfit for use 

RAISES THE SPIKES. 

7. As the vibratory motion of the rail takes place, 
something has to give way. If the fastening to the tie 
is by push bolt or lag screw, the tie will be raised with 
the vibration and "pump" the ballast. This action will 
take place for a while, but in time these fastenings will 
become loose. If the rail is held down by a spike, the 
tendency is to raise it an exceedingly small amount, 
enough to allow for the play of the rail. Spikes are 
either re-enforced under the head or perfectly plain. It 
is at this point that the re-enforcement is injurious, 
for whether it is in the back or front of a spike, raising 
it affords the rail an opportunity to move laterally by 
the amount of extra metal in the neck. As the re-en- 
forcement inclines toward the vertical axis of the spike 



EFFECTS OF THE WAVE MOTION. 115 

as it extends down the neck, the farther it is extracted 
from the tie the larger the opening is left for the spike 
to fill up; and it is owing to this that the spike is crowd- 
ed backwards in the hole and the rails have a chance to 
spread. In short, there should be no re-enforcement 
on the neck of a spike. 
TENDENCY OF RAIL TO WORK INTO FACE OF TIE. 

8. When the spike is slightly higher than its nor- 
mal position in the tie, the rail has an opportunity to 
act on the tie more so than otherwise. This action 
partakes of three different forms: 

i. A straight pressure downwards. 

2. A lateral pressure. 

3. A resultant of these two. 

WEARING THE SPIKES. 

9. The rail has an opportunity to work up and 
down, wearing the neck of the spike. The same action 
takes place when a spike is not driven properly. 

WEARS THE RAILS. 

10. When a rail is canted, all the running is done 
on one side of the head, and, consequently, this is 
where the wear takes place. 

RAILS CREEP. 

11. Creeping is caused by the undulatory motion, 
and is very destructive to track. Not only does it 
buckle the joints and tear apart the bolts, but also dis- 
turbs the ties, especially those at the joints, and, of 
necessity, displaces the ballast. 

This is arrested in part by the slot holes in the angle 
bar, but stops of some sort should be used in addition; 
these can be in the form of an angle bar about six 
inches long, with slot holes for the spikes. One bolt 
can be put through these, and the bar attached to the 
middle of each 30-foot rail. In stone ballast, tamping 
ties on the leaving side materially assists, as well as 
driving the outside spikes on the receiving side. 



CHAPTER X. — GENERAL FALL TRACK 
WORK. 

TOUCHING UP. 

I. Track foremen will find plenty of work to do 
during the fall months before the ground freezes, pre- 
paring their sections to go through the long winter 
months with as little repair work as possible. If the 
weather is good more work can be done (which will 
benefit the track) in one month before the ground 
freezes than can be performed during the whole winter. 

Section foremen should find all the worst places in 
the track and repair them in the best manner possible. 

Special attention should be given to improve the 
surface of the track and putting a perfect line and 
gauge on the rails. 

The roadbed should be cleared of weeds and grass 
and the ballast along the shoulder of the track and 
between the rails should be dressed up neatly; joint 
fastenings should be made tight, and the ditches in 
all cuts should be cleaned out. 

Any rotten ties remaining in the track should be 
taken out and replaced by new ones. 

All new steel should be laid before cold weather. 
The joint ties should be spaced properly and ballast 
put under the track, and at other points on the road 
where steel is not laid good repair rails should be put 
into the track to replace those which have become bat- 
tered. Grass should be cut while still green and 1 no 



GENERAL FALL TRACK WORK. 117 

rubbish allowed around the wood work of all bridges, 
culverts or cattle guards, and the rubbish should be 
gathered up and burned. 

In a prairie country the grass along the right of 
way on both sides of the track should be burned off 
clean as quick as it is dry enough, and the tops of the 
cuts should be burned off first, to prevent the loco- 
motives from setting fires on farm lands adjoining. 
All right of way fences should be examined and re- 
paired and snow fences should be put in good condi- 
tion to be ready for the first snow storm. All track 
material should be piled at the stations, a safe distance 
from the track, and where it would not cause snow 
drifts, or be liable to catch fire. 

Rails, splices and such other material should be 
raised from the ground and piled upon platforms of 
old ties so there will be no difficulty in handling them 
after snow falls on the ground. 

All ties, fence posts, engine wood, or lumber should 
be corded up with spaces between the piles so that in 
case of fire it could not communicate to a large quan- 
tity at once. Emergency rails and joint splices should 
be placed at the mile posts along the section, where 
they would be handy in case of broken rails. Much of 
the fall track work is the same as that done during the 
spring or summer. But foremen snould be particular 
to do this season of the year all work which can only 
be imperfectly done in the winter or must wait over 
until the following spring. 

CLEANING THE RIGHT OF WAY. 

2. In the latter part of the month of July, or before 
the weeds growing along the railroad right of way 
run to seed, provided State law requires it, the section 
foreman should commence mowing, and cutting down 



118 THE TRACKMAN'S HEDPER. 

all grass, brush and weeds from the shoulder of the 
track out to the right of way limits. This work should 
be pushed when once begun, and as soon thereafter as 
the material which was mowed down is dry enough, it 
should be gathered into piles and burned clean, or dis- 
posed of in some way, without danger to the com- 
pany's property. 

The grass and weeds growing around the ends of 
culverts, or close to the bridges, should be mowed 
down, while the surrounding grass is still so green it 
will not burn, in order that the mowed grass, when 
dry, may be burnt without danger of the wind spread- 
ing the fire, and to prevent other fires from reaching 
the wood work when burning off the right of way 
afterwards. In localities where the sections are long, 
and only a small force of men is employed, the right 
of way mowing is sometimes only done for a short 
distance out from the shoulder on each side along the 
track, and the balance of the right of way is left to be 
burnt off later in the fall. 

RAISING UP SAGS. 

3. It frequently happens that a track foreman will 
undertake to raise the track in a sag up to level sur- 
face without any knowledge of the amount of ma- 
terial necessary to put under the track or the time it 
will require to do the work with the force at his 
command. In some cases, the time consumed in 
taking up a sag is so great that other parts of the 
track which should be attended to are neglected. The 
following simple rule will enable track foremen to make 
a very close estimate of the amount of labor and ma- 
terial required to bring any sag up to surface. 

Rule: — Set two stakes, A and B, close to the track 
rails and level with their top surface at each end of the 



GENERAL PALL TRACK WORK. 



119 



sag, as shown in Fig. 27. Then set a third stake C at 
'the middle of the sag and in line with A and B, and 
drive it down until the top of it is level with the tops of 
the outer two stakes. You can ascertain whether this 
is the case by sighting over A and B. Measure the 
height of stake C above the ground and multiply it 
by the distance in feet from A to B, and again multiply 
the product by the width of the embankment in feet 
and divide by 2. This will give you the contents in 
cubic feet and dividing the whole number of cubic feet 
iby 2J will be the number of cubic yards of dirt or bal- 
last which will be required to surface up the sag. If the 
sag is deeper than twelve inches an allowance of one 




FIG 27. 

foot in width for each foot in depth should be made up 
for the side slopes. An allowance of about one-sixth 
of the depth above level in some cases should be made 
on the middle of light sags when surfacing up. This 
can best be done by leveling a sight board the proper 
height in the middle of the sag and sighting the track 
to it from one end, and from that point sighting the 
rails to where the sag runs out at the other end. A sag, 
which has only been raised level with the track on each 
side of it, will soon become low again in the middle un- 
less made very solid! 

NARROW EMBANKMENTS. 

4. Many section foremen have a habit of digging 
holes in the embankment just outside the ends of the 
track ties when they want a little dirt or ballast to pick 



120 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

up or dress the track. This is all wrong, and can be 
justified only in case the traffic over the line is so heavy 
that it is not advisable to attempt to haul dirt with a 
push car On a mud track if material is wanted for this 
purpose it should be taken from the nearest cut with the 
section push car, or if the fill is not very deep the fore- 
man should set his men throwing up dirt from outside 
the bottom of the original fill. There the necessary 
material can be procured without injuring the embank- 
ment sufficiently to make it liable to wash away, or 
weakening it as a support for the track. The preference 
should always be given to material from a cut even 
when the cost is a little greater. A double purpose is 
served by removing the surplus which accumulates 
in the ditches and putting it on the fill to strengthen it. 
Of course, where track is ballasted with gravel, or other 
like material, dirt should not be mixed with it, but when 
only a small quantity of material is needed it can be 
taken from places where the ballast is the heaviest 
along the shoulder of the track. Whenever any ma- 
terial is taken from a grade or wasted therein, such 
places should be leveled off, dressed and finished up in 
a workmanlike manner. Never leave unsightly holes 
along the track. Both sides of the embankment should 
be the same width outside the ties, if possible, and 
grass should be encouraged to grow along the slopes, 
because it offers the best protection against weeds 
and washouts. Section foremen should not attempt 
to raise up track on high, narrow fills in order to 
surface it. At such places it is always best to pick 
up and tamp only joints or other low places in the rail, 
and keep the track in good line until you can get 
enough dirt or ballast to leave a good shoulder outside 
the ties after raising up the track to surface. 



GENERAL FALL TRACK WORK. 121 

HAUL OUT MATERIAL FROM CUTS. 

5. Where the distance between cuts is short, and 
the track fill between is high and narrow, section fore- 
men should make good wide ditches in the cuts, and 
haul out on their push car the material from the ditches, 
and distribute it evenly on both sides of the track. This 
work should be done either early in the spring, or late 
in the fall of the year, or when the facilities for doing 
other work are not good. 

TO REMEDY TOO WIDE AN OPENING AT THE 
JOINTS. 

6. Track is often laid with too wide an opening at 
the joints, and as a result the ends of the rails batter 
down very quickly and the joint splices often break 
and tear apart, owing to the contraction of the rails 
in extremely cold weather. Track foremen who are 
troubled with this state of affairs should try to remedy 
it at once in the following manner: 

Loosen the bolts in forty or fifty joints and pull out 
all the slot spikes which are used to control the expan- 
sion. Then select a space about midway to take out 
one or two of the rails on each side of the track. Have 
ready to replace the rails which you take out, one or 
two rails the combined length of which will be six or 
eight inches greater than that of the rails which you 
take out, allowing this length to be a little less than 
the total amount you wish to close the joints. Have 
your men get astride of one loose rail, lift it up and 
bunt back the track rails on each side of the opening 
until it is wide enough to admit of putting in the longer 
rails, then bolt and spike the rails to place, dividing 
the expansion on the other joints afterwards. 

Follow out this method at different points along 
your section wherever you see it is necessary, and you 



122 THE TRACKMAN'S HBDPER. 

will have no more trouble with rails tearing apart in 
cold weather, endangering trains and increasing your 
responsibility. The rails will wear much longer, and 
you can keep a much better surface on the track. But 
foremen should exercise judgment in this matter and 
be sure that the expansion is so distributed that there 
will be no danger of making the joints too tight for 
warm weather. 

When you have fixed a piece of track the above 
way, if supported joints are used, provide some new 
ties and put one into track under the center of every 
rail joint which has been moved out of its place on the 
track ties, when you were shifting the rails. If the 
joints are suspended square all the ties which have 
been shifted. 

Both jobs should always be done at the same time 
and low joints tamped up to surface, the ties spaced 
properly so that the spikes may be driven in their 
proper places and prevent track creeping. 



CHAPTER XL— FENCES. 

BUILDING FENCES. 

I. It is sometimes the duty of section foremen to 
build wire fences along the railroad right of way limits; 
and as there are many foremen who have had no ex- 
perience in this branch of work, it will not be out of 
place here to give a good, practical method for per- 
forming this duty. 

Measure with a tape line from the center of the 
track to the right of way limits, which is generally 
fifty feet, and set a stake in the ground. This should 
be the outside face of the fence posts when set in the 
ground. Where the track is straight these measure- 
ments need be taken only at distances of forty or eighty 
rods, but around a curve they should be taken every 
sixty or hundred feet, in order to have the fence con- 
form to the line of the track. 

Peel the bark from all fence posts and set their cen- 
ters sixteen feet apart, when not otherwise ordered, so 
that boards may be nailed on them if desired. To line 
the fence and regulate the distance between posts, use 
a chain or line two hundred feet long for straight track, 
and one hundred feet, or less, for curve track. Have 
tin tags at regular distances on your chain, or tie knots 
in the line to mark where the center of each post hole 
should come, and when the line is stretched take a 
spade and remove a little of the sod or top surface of 
the ground opposite the marks on the line as a guide 



124 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



for the men digging the post holes. The line may then 
be moved ahead. 

Set all posts two and one-half feet in the ground, 
and have the men who are digging make a mark on 
their shovels by which to determine the correct depth 
of the post holes, and thus have all the posts of a uni- 
form height above the ground. A good way to save 
sighting along straight track is to set a post every 
forty to eighty rods with a temporary brace, and 
stretch one wire of the fence to use as a guide to set 
them by. 

When putting on wires, if you are not furnished a 
wire stretcher, the wire may be tightened by taking 




a turn of it around a lining bar. Stick the point of 
the bar in the ground diagonally from you, and pull 
on the top of bar with the right hand. In this way 
you can take up the slack. 

Fence wire should not be stretched too tight in 
warm weather, or it will break when it contracts in 
the winter. Always put the wire on, the farmer's side 
of the fence posts. A good brace should be put in at 
the end of each piece of fence, or at any point where 
the fence turns an angle at the end of fence, also at 
farm gates and cattle guards. See Figs. 28 and 29. 



FENCES. 



125 



Mortice one end of the brace into the top of the 
corner post, and the other end into the bottom of the 
post adjoining, where it enters the ground. Provide 
a board with notches cut into it at distances equal to 
the proper space between the wires. The wires may 
be hung in the notches, and the board will keep them 
in position while they are being fastened to the posts. 

Have the men well organized. Divide a gang of 
sixteen about as follows: Assign two men to lay out 
the fence; six to dig post holes; four to set the posts; 




FIG. 29. 

and four to string the wires and fasten them. Move 
the men occasionally from parts of the work which 
are the most advanced to parts which are behind. When 
crossing creeks or marshy places it is well to turn the 
fence in at right angle to end of the bridge and string 
the wires across on the piles. 

Order material as follows: Fence wire, one pound 
for every single wire panel of sixteen feet; staples, one 
and three-fourths pounds for each hundred pounds of 
wire used. 

When spacing wires, have the bottom ones the 
closer together. For instance, for a five-wire fence 
four and one-half feet high, place bottom wire eight 
inches above the ground; the second wire ten inches 
above the first, and the other three wires each twelve 
inches above the last, or the third wire from the bottom 



126 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

could be spaced ten inches above the second, and the 
top wire fourteen inches above the fourth. The latter 
is the best method where it is desirable to fence against 
all kinds of stock. The top of fence posts should not 
be more than six inches above the top wire of the 
fence, and all posts when set and tamped solid should 
be in perfect line and a uniform height from the ground. 
When posts are irregular in length, the surplus timber 
should be sawed off if it amounted to four or more 
inches, but where the post is only two or three inches 
too long, the hole may be deepened sufficiently to leave 
it the proper height when set. 

If a post is two or three inches short fill up the hole 
sufficiently to bring it to the right height above the 
ground. But should it be as much as six inches too 
short, do not use it in the fence except at some places 
where it would answer for a short brace. To regulate 
the height of fence post above the ground, have a 
standard made the correct height, and nail square 
across the bottom of it a cross piece two feet long, 
which will prevent slight inequalities in the surface 
of the ground from affecting the height when placed 
beside the post. This standard can also be arranged to 
regulate the distance between the boards or wires as 
they are nailed on the fance. 

A fence with the top wire or top board four and 
one-half feet from the ground is a lawful fence in most 
of the States. 

BOARD FENCES. 

2. In building a board fence, the setting of posts 
and nailing on of the boards can be done at the same 
time. Always use the shortest boards to measure from 
one post to the next one to be set; the longer boards 
can be sawed the proper length. Nail the boards on 



FENCES. 127 

at the outside of the fence. Several men can be nail- 
ing on boards at once, by ending the boards against 
those last nailed on the adjoining panel. On straight 
track, sighting posts can be set at the proper distance 
from the track, every forty or sixty rods ahead of the 
men digging the post holes. But on curve track, to 
make a good fence and have it in line, every panel 
post should be measured from the center of the track, 
and a stake set for it. This is not much of a job, if 
two men go along the track carrying the tape line 
stretched from place to place, while a third man sets 
stakes for the posts. By laying a board against the 
two panel posts, it lines the place for the middle posts. 
A bracket, made the proper height from the ground 
with the projections on it to fit between the boards, 
making the spaces the correct width, is very handy 
when building a board fence It makes a much better 
fence than when the spacing is done by guess, and 
saves measuring the spaces. 

If board fence is built with the boards meeting on 
the same side of the post, a batten should be nailed 
over the joint from the ground to the top of the post. 

For a permanent snow fence constructed with posts 
and boards, the posts may be set about fifteen feet four 
inches apart, and the ends of the boards can be nailed 
on opposite sides of each panel post. By this method 
there is a larger amount of the board available for nail- 
ing when putting them up again after being torn, or 
blown off. It also saves the labor of sawing off the 
ends of the boards to make them meet square on the 

post. 

FENCE TABLES. 

3. The following table will be useful to foremen, 
when estimating the amount of fencing material re- 
quired to build a post and board, or wire fence: 



128 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF POSTS REQUIRED 
TO BUILD ONE MILE OF FENCE. 



DISTANCE 


NO. POSTS IN % 


NO. POSTS IN Vz 


NO. POSTS IN 1 


BETWEEN POSTS. 


MILS. 


MILE. 


MILE. 


8 feet. 


116 


331 


661 


12 " 


111 


221 


441 


16 " 


83 


166 


331 


20 " 


67 


133 


265 


32 " 


42 


83 


166 



TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BOARDS RE- 
QUIRED TO BUILD ONE-QUARTER MILE, ONE- 
HALF MILE, OR ONE MILE OF FENCE AT A GIVEN 
NUMBER PER PANEL. 



NO. OP B'BDS. PBB 


ONE-FOURTH MILS. 


ONE-HALF MILE. 


ONE MILE. 


PANEL. 








4 boards. 


330 


660 


1320 


5 


412^ 


825 


1650 


6 


495 


990 


1980 


7 


577| 


1155 


2310 


8 


660 


1320 


2640 


9 


7424 


1485 


2970 


10 


825 


1650 


3300 



One sixteen-foot fence board contains eight square 
feet of lumber. If a lumber estimate is required, mul- 
tiply the number of boards wanted by eight, and the 
result is the number of square feet. 

Example: — 4 boards per panel for % mile of track=33ox8= 
2,640 sq. ft. of lumber. 

WEIGHT OF NAILS. 

55, 10 penny, common nails, weigh one pound. 
45, 12 penny, common nails, weight one pound. 
30, 10 penny, fence nails, weigh one pound. 
28, 12 penny, fence nails, weigh one pound. 
To ascertain the amount of nails wanted to build 
a given length of fence, multiply the number of boards 



FENCES. 129 

by 6, and divide the result by the number of nails to 
the pound. 

Example: — For X mile board fence, 330 boards, 4 per panel; 
number of nails per board6; number of fence nails per pound 
30: 330X6=1980-=- 30=66 lbs. 

WEIGHT OF FENCE WIRE. 

5. The average weight of the wire now used by rail- 
roads is very close to one pound per rod for one wire, 
or about 6| per 100 feet in length. When making es- 
timates for wire fence, about 10 pounds to the mile of 
fence may be added for tying, splicing, etc. The weight 
of staples varies according to the size used. Seventy 
staples to the pound is the size most commonly used 
in building railroad fence. 

A DAY'S LABOR. 

6. The average day's labor for one man at building 
post and board fence, where the boards meet on the 
post, six to a panel, and the work of setting the posts 
is included, is about eight to ten panels of fence com- 
plete. When the ends of the boards lap on opposite 
sides of the post, thirteen to fifteen panels can be con- 
structed by one man in a day. Building a post and 
wire fence, posts one rod apart, and four strands of 
wire, a man can construct about fifteen panels in a day; 
but a great deal depends on the conditions under which 
the work is performed, the quality of material used, and 
the quality or general excellence of the work when fin- 
ished. The results obtained from a man's labor de- 
pend, first, on his intelligence; next, on his willingness 
to work; and, lastly, on his physical endurance. These 
three requisites should always be considered by a fore- 
man when employing men; and when possible he 
should always choose for his men those who possess 
all the qualities mentioned. 



ISO 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 
WOVEN WIRE FENCES. 



7. During the last years the barbed wire fences are 
gradually being replaced by woven wire fences, par- 
ticularly in the East and in populous districts. They 




FIG. 30. 



are generally made of steel wire of some meshed pat- 
tern, as shown in Fig. 30, and are fastened to the posts 
and the posts anchored in the ground, as shown in 
Fig. 31. The advantages of a woven wire fence are 




FIG. 31. 

that they can be made so as to fence against almost any 
stock, besides there is less liability to accident than with 
the barbed wire fence, which is often injurious to stock. 



CHAPTER XII.— GENERAL WINTER WORK. 

GENERAL REPAIRS. 

I. There are many kinds of track work which the 
section men should do during the winter months, all of 
which are important, and assist materially to lighten 
and advance the work of the following spring and 
summer. 

In the early part of the winter, when the cold 
weather has contracted the rails, its effect on the rail 
joints, bolt, and splices should be noticed by the fore- 
man, and all loose bolts should be tightened up, and 
broken or cracked splices should be replaced by good 
ones. 

All open joints should be closed to the proper space, 
especially in the switches, to prevent the ends of the 
rails from becoming battered, and to save car wheels 
from breaking when passing over wide openings be- 
tween the ends of the rails, as often happens in cold 
weather. All battered rails should be taken out of the 
track and replaced by good ones. When the number 
is so great that they cannot all be removed in a short 
time, good repair rails and splices should be distrib- 
uted every mile or two along the section, so that when 
snow on the track, or bad weather interferes, broken 
rails or spikes can be replaced without any difficulty 
or unnecessary delay. As the winter advances, all good 
weather should be taken advantage of, and every spike 
above the rail flange, or leaning from it, should be 



132 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

knocked down to place, and all of the track should be 
brought to a perfect gage. 

Cleaning switches and yard tracks, and flanging out 
the main track after snow storms ; shimming track, 
peeling the bark from ties, distributing ties for spring 
work, opening up ditches, and culverts, etc., all add to 
the section foreman's labor, and it requires a man of 
good judgment and energy to keep all of his work 
done properly at the right time and place. 

If a foreman keeps the loose spikes knocked down 
to place, and a good gage on his track, he will be 
surprised at the splendid line which he can have on 
his track the following summer, and trains will ride 
over it without that disagreeable side motion of the 
cars which knocks the line and surface out of the 
track, and is so fatal to the comfort of passengers. 
SHIMMING TRACK. 

2. Shimming track is a very important kind of 
winter work on northern railroads, and should be done 
with a view to keeping straight track level, smooth 
and safe, and the proper elevation of the outer rails 
on curves. 

Shims are placed under the track rails to raise up 
the low places to a smooth surface, and care should 
be taken to bring the rails to their proper place, where 
the track has heaved up. All shims should have holes 
bored through them for the track spikes. This can best 
be done by boring the holes through a block of straight 
grained hard wood, six inches wide by ten inches long, 
and splitting off the shims as thick as. needed. On 
account of the difficulty of finding such wood in many 
parts of the country it would be best to have this work 
done in shops where old or broken timbers may be 
utilized for making shims, which can be sawed and 
bored to better advantage than out on the road. 



GENERAL WINTER WORK. i33 

The top surface of the track ties should be adzed 
Off level, especially when there is a groove made by 
the rail. This is necessary to give the rails a solid 
foundation, preserve the correct surface, and prevent 
the shims from breaking. Shims should never be 
placed lengthways under the rails, because in that po- 
sition they increase the height of the rail without 
widening the base. Section men cannot always see 
them, and they are liable to slip out of place, and by 
so doing weaken the support, and may cause a broken 
rail. 

Where the shims used are over one inch in thick- 
ness, spikes seven or eight inches long should be used 
to secure the rails, and where thicker shims are used, 
old rail splices should be spiked on the ends of the 
ties and against the outside of the rails for braces. 
These braces should be spiked on every second, third 
or fourth tie, in proportion to the height of the shims. 

To shim two or three inches high, plank of the 
proper thickness, sixteen feet long, should be cut in 
halves and spiked to the ties with boat spikes. For 
four-inch shims put a one inch shim on top of a three- 
inch plank or a four-inch plank, and for five-inch 
shim use a four-inch plank, with a one inch shim on 
top. 

All high shimmed tracks should be watched closely, 
and thinner shims should be used to replace the thick 
ones as fast as the heaved track settles in the spring. 
Shims should not be removed from the track until all 
heaving has gone down, except where they are put un- 
der the rails to level up low joints or other spots which 
were left over in the fall of the year. When the rail 
which has shims under it is higher than the track 
either way from it by the thickness of the shims, you 
may remove them as the heaving has all gone out of 



134 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

the ground. Many foremen have spoiled a nice piece 
of track by removing the shims and tamping the ties 
as soon as the frost was out to the bottom of the ties. 
All good shims, shim spikes and braces, should be 
put away in the tool house every spring, and saved for 
use another year. And any planks which were used 
for shims in the manner here mentioned, may be put 
in service during the summer on highways or private 
wagon crossings. 

HEAVED BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. 

3. Pile bridges and pile culverts need careful 
watching in the winter season, and whenever the sec- 
tion foreman finds them heaved up out of surface or 
line, the bridge carpenters should be promptly noti- 
fied. In some bridges and culverts the piles which 
heave up have to be cut off, and that part of the bridge 
or the culvert must be lowered to correspond with the 
track on either side of it. Unlike the track in cuts, or 
on dumps, some piles which heave up in the winter 
do not settle back to place again when the frost goes 
out of the ground, and shims have to be put under the 
caps or stringers, to keep the bridges up to surface 
during the summer. The greatest danger is to be ap- 
prehended where the piles in a bridge heave up irreg- 
ularly, as when only one or two piles heave in a bent, 
or when the piles heave up in opposite corners of two 
different bents. This often happens when the piles are 
driven in deep water, as the ice which freezes to them 
lifts them up and should, therefore, always be cut away 
by the trackmen before there is danger of its doing so. 

REPORT AMOUNT OF SNOW. 

4. Section foremen should ascertain the condition 
of the track in their charge immediately after every 
snow storm (or wind storm) which would be liable to 



GENERAL WINTER WORK. 135 

drift snow upon the track, and report to their road- 
master the depth and length of snow drifts in all the 
cuts on their sections. It is of the greatest import- 
ance that snow reports be sent promptly to the road- 
master by telegraph in order that the officers of the 
road may be able to make necessary preparations to 
clear the track. 

SNOW ON SIDE TRACKS. 

5. Section foremen should clear away the snow 
which has drifted upon side tracks as soon as possible 
after a storm, and the snow on switches and in frogs 
and guard rails, should be shoveled off and the track 
for the full length of the switch lead and moving rails 
should be swept clean. This work should never be de- 
layed because all freight trains will need to do switch- 
ing as soon as the road is open for traffic. 

SNOW IN CUTS. 

6. During the winter months when snow falls or is 
drifted into cuts to a depth of two or more feet, section 
foremen should take their men, just as soon as possi- 
ble after the storm, and remove from the track suf- 
ficient snow at the ends of all drifts, to leave a clean 
flange and a clear face of snow, at least eighteen inches 
deep, at both the approach and run out ends of the 
drift. It is a notorious fact that a great many engines, 
when bucking snow, run off the track when coming 
out of, or running into a snow drift. This is generally 
caused by hard snow or ice in the flanges, as the engine, 
on being suddenly relieved of the resistance of the 
snow, easily mounts the rail on a hard flange way, and 
runs off the track. 

FLANGING TRACK. 

7. Whenever the track becomes* full of snow in the 
winter it becomes necessary that the same should be 



13G THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

flanged out. On most roads they now have flanging 
machines for this purpose. These devices may be 
divided into two classes, such as are directly attached 
to the locomotive, and such as are built into a special 
car; the former class is obviously the best and most 
economical since it does not require a special train for 
the purpose of flanging a division, as the latter class 
requires. There are several patterns of flangers in use, 
but the Priest flanger has many points of advantage 
over others. It is operated by compressed air and is 
entirely under the control of the engineer. There is 
nothing about the flanger that can break, except the 
knives, if they strike a metallic obstruction, like a 
guard rail, and then they can be readily replaced in a 
few minutes ; if the engineer is careful and raises the 
mechanism every time he approaches such an obstruc- 
tion the knives will last until they wear out. When the 
flanger is used the only hand flanging the section men 
will have to do will be around frogs and switches and 
highway crossings, where the knives of the flangers 
have to be raised. On roads having no mechanical 
flangers the section men will have to do the flanging 
by hand practically the entire length of their section. 
They should then begin at the top of the heaviest 
grades first and then at places where it is difficult for 
engines to pull a train, like around heavy curves, or 
in cuts where track is heaved. This entails a great deal 
of work and is far more expensive and tedious than 
to equip the locomotives with improved flanging ma- 
chines — they do the work more thorough and quickly, 
leaving a clear rail behind them for the following train 
or trains, and the section men can then put their time 
in to good advantage in having the switches and frogs 
clear of snow, and also do a good job flanging along 
the section at highway crossings, where the flanging 



GENERAL WINTER WORK. 137 

knives had to be raised. The "Priest" flanging ma- 
chine has made an excellent record, having thoroughly 
flanged track at the head of heavy freight trains cut- 
ting through twelve inches of fairly hard snow, the 
trains making nearly schedule time.. When flanging 
track or shoveling snow in deep curve cuts the fore- 
man should set out flags or post a look-out to avoid 
the danger of his men being run into by trains. 
OPENING DITCHES AND CULVERTS. 

8. On roads where snow lies on the ground during 
the winter months, section foremen should open up 
all ditches, culverts, and other waterways which pass 
along or under the track. Culverts, which are apt to 
be covered with snow in the winter, can easily be 
located when the thaw comes, if a long stake is driven 
close to the mouth of each culvert early in the fall of 
the year before any snow falls on the ground. 

In cuts that are full of snow on each side of the 
track, leaving only room enough for trains to pass 
through, foremen should make a ditch in the snow 
when it begins to melt in the spring, about six feet 
from the rail on each side of the track, so that when 
the water begins to run it will not injure the track by 
running over it. 

PROTECT YOUR MEN. 

9. After the line becomes blockaded and before 
the snow-bucking gang arrives, section men should 
clean the snow off every other rail in long, deep cuts, 
which are certain to stick the snow plow. A look-out 
should be kept so that the men in the pits are not 
caught by the unexpected arrival of the train. But if 
the amount of snow in a cut is not sufficient to stall a 
snow plow it would be a waste of time to do this work. 
By cleaning the snow off alternate rails as mentioned, 



138 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

if two engines, coupled together, are doing the "buck- 
ing," one engine will always have a clean rail under it 
and the resistance of the snow will not be great enough 
to stop the plow, no matter how long the cut may be. 
SNOW WALLS. 

io. If you have any snow fences for protection along 
the cuts on your section, watch them closely and when- 
ever you find a fence which has been drifted full of 
snow or nearly so, build with blocks of snow, taken 
from the inside face of the drift, a wall four feet high 
along on the top of the highest part of the drift. As 
long as the weather remains cool a wall built of blocks 
of snow will give as good protection to a cut as the 
same amount of ordinary snow fence would. Make 
snow walls strong and thick and increase their height 
on the worst cuts in proportion to the force of men that 
can be spared to do the work, and use double lines of 
snow wall fifty feet apart when they will be beneficial. 
SNOW FENCES. 

ii. On the majority of northern railroads the 
amount of snow which falls upon the ground during 
the winter months is not so great as to require the 
building of snow sheds, but to protect the cuts along 
the track from filling with snow, fences are built along 
the tops of the cuts at a sufficient distance from the 
track to catch the snow when it is drifted, and prevent 
it from being blown into the cuts and blocking the 
track. The efficiency of a snow fence as a protection 
against snow depends on its strength, durability, 
height, how far it is from the track and the manner in 
which it is arranged along the top of the cuts. 

A snow fence, no matter how well made, or of what 
material, will rot and become useless in eight or ten 
years, at the latest. The yearly cost of repairing snow 



GENERAL WINTER WORK. 139 

fences, the first cost, and the interest of the money in- 
vested, should all be considered before putting up a 
snow fence on any railroad cut. And where the work 
of grading down a cut on each side of the track, so 
that it will not hold snow, can be done for an amount 
of money equal to the cost of the items above referred 
to., the grading of the cut should be done in preference 
to the building of a snow fence. In many sections of 
the northwest a cut which is only two or three feet 
higher than the track rails can be graded from the 
right-of-way limits down to a level with the bottom of 
the track ties, and the dirt wasted on the fills near at 
hand for less than it would cost to maintain a snow 
fence on the same cut. 

Even when *the cost of putting a cut into such a 
condition that it will not hold snow is somewhat greater 
than that of maintaining a good snow fence, the differ- 
ence is in favor of the grading on account of the benefit 
the track derives from it. Except in high altitudes, on 
mountain railroads, snow fences are not needed 
at deep cuts, which from their top slope back into a 
valley within a short distance from the side of the track; 
nor are snow fences much good as a protection where 
the ground slopes with an incline off from the track 
unless the fence is close enough to carry the wind 
above the cut, or catch the snow before reaching the 
cut. Snow fence is not needed on cuts where heavy 
timber or underbrush grows close along each side of 
the track, as the only snow in such cuts falls directly 
upon the track. But where the ground is level for some 
distance from the track, or on a gently rolling prairie, 
cuts are liable Lo fill up with snow if not properly fenced. 
Snow fences should be set up at such a distance from 
the track that the edge of the snow drift forming inside 
of them will not reach within thirty feet of the track 



140 THE TJEtAOKMAN'S HELPEft. 

when the fence is drifted full. A good rule is to set 
the fence about eleven or twelve feet from the track for 
each foot in height of fence. The height of snow fence 
should regulate its distance from the track. If a snow 
fence is set too far from the track for its height, the 
wind, after passing over the top of the fence, soon 
strikes the ground on the inside of the fence and gathers 
all the snow before it into the cut, and part of the snow 
which blows over the fence is also carried upon the 
track. 

A snow fence is seldom set up on each side of the 
track unless the road is so situated as to be exposed to 
storms from both directions. 

Storms from the northwest, north and northeast are 
the most prevalent throughout the northwest, and as a 
general rule the north sides of railroads running east 
and west and the west sides of roads running north and 
south need the most protection from snow. Where two 
snow fences are put up on one side of the track they 
should run parallel with each other, and there should 
be a space of at least ioo feet between them. Unless a 
very large quantity of snow is drifted the outside fence 
will hold it all. 

Very good results have been attained by setting out 
the snow fence next to the track in the following man- 
ner. If the fence is of ordinary height, set it up sev- 
enty-five feet from the nearest track rail. Enough of 
the snow fence should run parallel with the track to 
reach the full length of the cut, no more. After this 
part of the fence is up, turn a wing on each end of it, 
approaching the track gradually until the extreme end 
of each wing extends ioo feet beyond the end of the 
cut, at a distance of about fifty or sixty feet from the 
track rail. 

When a cut ends abruptly on the beginning of a 



GENERAL WINTER WORK. 141 

high fill, the wing on that end of the snow fence should 
be turned in toward the track before the end of the cut 
is reached, or at least soon enough to protect the cut 
from a quartering storm. A snow fence built parallel 
with the track and without a wing on the end of it, is 
of very little use when a storm blows nearly parallel 
with the track, as much of the snow on the inside of 
the fence is apt to be blown into the cut. New ties 
which are received for repair of track the following 
spring can be distributed and used advantageously to 
make a temporary snow fence on cuts where needed. 
The ties may be laid along in line with their ends lap- 
ping each other, about one foot slats or pieces of board 
can then be put across the ends of the ties where they 
lap and a new line of ties laid along on top of them 
until the snow fence is of the proper height. 



CHAPTER XIII.— BUCKING SNOW. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

i. Clearing the track of snow in the winter really be- 
longs to the roadmaster's department, but as this book 
is intended to instruct young men who may fill that 
position at some time in the future, they cannot get too 
much information upon a subject which is of so much 
importance to railroad companies who are troubled 
with snow on their roads to a greater or less extent 
every winter. 

No man is so well qualified to buck snow as he who 
has had some experience at it, and no man should be 
trusted with full charge of a snow plow outfit unless it 
be known that he understands the best methods to be 
employed in opening up the road for traffic after a 
blockade. The man in charge of a snow plow outfit 
should be informed of the exact condition of the road, 
the depth of snow, the length of drifts, and the location 
of the same, as nearly as possible, before starting on 
the road. He should have good, live engines, and will- 
ing engineers. The plow itself should, like the engine 
and engineer, be the best that can be procured and of 
a pattern that could throw snow out of a cut eight or 
ten feet deep. Small plows, fenders, or other make- 
shifts which are only good to clean the rails of light 
snow, or gouge a hole through a big cut, should be left 
at home, and not taken out to buck snow. When there 
is a large quantity of it to be moved, the extra time 



BUCKING SNOW. 143 

and labor expended in shoveling and pulling such craft 
out of the snow would purchase a good plow in one 
trip over the road. Another engine and car, with a con- 
ductor, train crew and shoveling gang, should follow 
close behind the snow plow during the daytime, and 
should be coupled in behind the plow when running 
after dark. The second engine should be used as a 
helper in striking deep snow, and to pull out the plow 
engine whenever it is stuck fast in a snowdrift. All 
cars attached to the helper engine should be left behind 
on the clear track when both engines run together to 
buck a drift of snow. The pilot should be removed 
from the engine which is used for a helper, so that a 
close coupling can be made when both engines are used 
together. The less slack there is between two engines 
coupled together the less liability is there of the hind 
engine pushing the front engine off the track. This is 
most liable to happen on a curve track, or where hard 
snow is encountered. Never allow two engines to buck 
snow with a long car coupling between them, or with a 
caboose or other car between the engines, as either ar- 
rangement endangers the lives of the men on the train 
and often results in a wreck. There is no necessity for 
using two engines behind the snow plow to buck snow 
which one engine can as well throw out. If the snow 
is not too hard one good heavy engine and plow will 
clear the track of a snow drift three to five feet deep, 
and from five to eight hundred feet in length, at one 
run. However, with the improved rotary snow plow 
available, it is not likely that snow plowing with a plow 
on the front of a locomotive will be done to any great 
extent in the future, especially when cuts are deep and 
long, and snow is hard. But when the snow is soft, 
and not too deep on the track, the old way of getting 
rid of it is still apt to be practiced. 



144 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

TWO LOCOMOTIVES. 

2. Two good locomotives coupled together behind 
the plow, if managed oroperly, will remove any snow 
which it is advisable to buck. Snow drifts which are 
higher than the plow cannot be cleared from the track 
successfully without first shoveling the snow off the 
top of the drift, except when the drift is very short. 
Where the top of the snow drift is shoveled off, it 
should be opened wide enough to allow the plow to 
throw out of the cut the snow left in it. On roads 
where a flanger is used and made to pull behind an en- 
gine on a train, it should be sent with the snow plow 
helper, and used to clean out the snow left between rhe 
track rails by the snow plow. When the snow is re- 
ported hard those in charge of snow plow outfits should 
be very careful to have their engines and plow in as 
perfect condition as possible. They should run no risk; 
every snow drift should be examined before running 
into it, and each end should be shoveled out enough to 
leave a clean flangeway and a face that would let the 
plow enter under the snow and kept it down upon the 
rails. The tendency of hard snow is to lift the plow 
up over the top of the drift and throw the engine off 
the track. Whenever the ends of the drifts are not 
faced as before mentioned, there is always great danger 
when entering or leaving short, shallow drifts of hard 
snow, while on the contrary there is little or no danger 
in plowing soft, .deep snow at the greatest speed the 
engine can make. 

The engines with a snow plow outfit should always 
take on water and fuel to their full capacity at every, 
point on the rOad where a supply can be obtained, no 
matter whether it is liable to be used or not. When 
it is at all probable that progress will be slow on ac- 
count of hard or deep snow, a car loaded with coal 



BUCKING SNOW. 145 

should be taken along by the helper engine. If there is 
plenty of snow the supply of water can easily be made 
in the engine tanks by commencing to shovel snow 
into them before they are more than half empty. 
A PIECE OF STEAM HOSE. 

3. Every snow plow engine, and helper engine 
should be supplied with a piece of steam hose which 
can be attached to the siphon cock and reach from it 
to the water hole in the back of the tank. With this 
hose an engine steaming well can quickly make a full 
tank of water from snow shoveled into the tank. It 
is also useful to thaw out the machinery or clean the 
track rails of ice. 

LENGTH OF RUNS. 

4. In plowing snow the length of runs and the speed 
of the engine should always be in proportion to the 
depth and length of the snow drifts. If the drifts are 
deep and long, and likely to stick the plow, a good 
long run should be taken on the clear track, so that 
the plow engine may acquire its greatest speed before 
striking the drift. A good engineer who has had some 
practice in bucking snow, will so handle his engine that 
very little shoveling by the men will be needed. 

It is not advisable to start out on the road with a 
snow plow outfit during a heavy storm, but everything 
should be ready to make a start as soon as the storm is' 
over. The snow plow should be attached to the best 
and heaviest engine in service on the division where it 
is used. 

The man in charge of a snow plow outfit should 
use his best judgment and have his wits about him at 
all times, that he may not be caught on the road with a 
dead engine, or be wrecked and block the road for other 
trains. It is much better for the company's interests, 
and those of all others concerned, when all accidents 



146 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

are avoided, even should it take much longer time to 
open up the road. 

The engineer of the snow plow engine should sound 
the whistle frequently when approaching a cut, so that 
section men, if working there, would be warned in 
time to get out of the cut. When the snow plow is 
making repeated runs for a big snow drift, the signal 
to come ahead should never be given until all the snow 
shovelers have left the cut. It is very difficult for men 
to climb out of a cut where the snow is deep, and many 
accidents have occurred where approaching trains have 
failed to warn the men in time, or where the men have 
neglected to look out for the danger until it was too 
late. If the men with the snow plow are always on the 
alert, and careful and conscientious in the discharge of 
their duties, the safety of all concerned will be assured 
and the work will progress rapidly. 

PREPARING DRIFTS. 

5. When a snow drift is so long and deep that it may 
stick the snow plow twice, the better policy is to have 
the section men clean alternate rails for common snow 
plows. If rotary is used all snow more than ten feet 
above rails must be shoveled out. 

All very hard snow should be broken up by the 
men and the crust thrown out before striking it with a 
snow plow. The shock felt when a snow plow strikes 
a hard drift is sometimes very great, and often damages 
the machinery, or knocks the' plow from the track. 
The force of the concussion may be materially lessened 
by having the men clean a good flange way, and then 
shovel out of the face and top of the drift enough snow 
to make a gradual incline of about one foot to the rod. 
Besides reducing the force of the shock the above 
method of preparing a hard snow drift enables the snow 
plow to open a much greater distance at a run. 



CHAPTER XIV.— LAYING OUT CURVES. 
GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES. 

I. Curves are spoken of as being of a certain de- 
gree or radius. The radii of curves are proportional 
to the degree of curvature. The radii corresponding 
to any degree may be found approximately, by divid- 
ing 5,730 (the radius of a 1 degree curve) by the degree 
of curve. 

Hence the radius of a 5 degree curve = 5730-7-5=1 146. 

This rule is very close for radii of not less than 
500 feet. 

The middle ordinate of a chord is the perpendicu- 
lar distance from the middle of the chord to the curve ; 
thus M N, Fig. 32, is the middle ordinate of the 
chord, C D. 

The middle ordinate may be found, approximately, 
by dividing the square of the chord by eight times the 
radius. The error for a 50-foot chord on a 20-degree 
curve is only 1-32 of an inch. 

The chord deflection of a 100- foot chord may be 
ascertained (exactly) by dividing 10,000 by the radius 
in feet. The tangent deflection is one-half the chord 
deflection. 



148 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



RADII, ORDINATES AND DEFLECTIONS FOR 100 
FEET CHORDS. 







Mid. 


Tang. 


Cord. 






; 


Mid. 


Tang. Cord. 


Deg. 


Rad. 


Ord. 


Defiec. 


Defl. 


Deg. 


Rad 




3rd. 


Deflec. 


Deflec 


D.M. 


FT. 


FT 


. IN. 


FT 


. IN. 


FT 


IN. 


D. M. 


FT. 


FT 


'. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN 


10 


34377 





oft 





11 





3j 


7 


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0| 





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7 


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800 


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1ft 





51 


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782 


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If 





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3 1 

° 2 


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91 


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30 


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31* 


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2 


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1 


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14 &% 


10 


3438 





M 


1 


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30 


675 


1 


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50 


3125 





m 


1 


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3 


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662 


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15 1% 


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51 


1 


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2645 





5H 


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J - L 16 


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2456 





6* 


2 


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62 


2 





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30 


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6ft 


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20 


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Oft 


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7 


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fill 

"1 6 


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lift 


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1910 





n 


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574 


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8| 


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911 


30 


546 


2 


31- 


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1637 





9ft 


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11 


522 


2 


411 


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1563 





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499 


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lift 


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23 6% 


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31 3ft 


50 


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303 


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955 


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23 


251 


5 


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19 111 


39 10J£ 


40 


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240 


5 


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20 9£ 


41 7 


50 839 1 


5* 


5 


in 


11 11 


25 


231 


5 


5M 


21 1% 


43 3% 



LAYING OUT CURVES. 149 

TO LAY OUT A CURVE BY THE. EYE. 

2. In Fig. 32 the line H' C, subtends the angle 
formed by the tangent, A B, produced to H, with the 
chord B C, and is called the tangent deflection. The 
line I D, which subtends the angle formed by the chord 
B C, produced to I, with the chord C D, is called the 
chord deflection. The number of degrees in the angle, 
I C D, expresses the degree of curve. The tangent 
deflection is equal to one-half the chord deflection. 

Table 3 has the radius, tangent deflection, chord 




FIG. 32. 

deflection and middle ordinates, calculated for chords 
of 100 feet for differences of 10 minutes. For a curve 
containing odd minutes, the parts can be readily cal- 
culated by simple proportion. Having these respec- 
tive distances, any intelligent foreman can trace a curve 
on the ground, with tolerable accuracy, especially 
where the ground is favorable. Suppose it be required 
to lay out in this manner, a four-degree curve. 

First, find from table 3, the tangent deflection, H 
C. corresponding to a four-degree curve, viz, 3 feet 5$ 



150 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

inches, and also the chord deflection, I D, or K E, 6 
feet i if inches. Then from the starting point, B, and 
in line with A B, measure B H, equal to ioo feet, and 
mark the point H. Swing the tape around toward B 
C, keeping the end at B fixed, at the same time meas- 
ure from the point H, the tangent deflection 3 feet 5$ 
inches, and place a stake at C, for the first point on the 
curve. Then make C I, equal to 100 feet, putting a 
peg at I, in line with those at B and C. Swing the 
tape or chord around until I D is equal to the chord de- 
flection, 6 feet 1 if inches. Place a stake at D for the 
second point on the curve. 

In the same manner continue the chord deflection 
until the end of the curve is reached at E. 

In order to pass from the curve at E, into the next 
tangent, E G, make E L equal to 100 feet, and put in 
a peg at L in line with those at D and E. Swing the 
tape around until F L is equal to the tangent deflec- 
tion.- Then will a line, passing through E and F, be 
tangent to the curve at E. 

If the last chord, D E, is less than 100 feet, its tan- 
gent deflection can be calculated by multiplying the 
square of the sub-chord by the tangent deflection of a 
100-foot chord, and dividing by 1,000. Then throw off 
a tangent to the curve at D, lay off from it the calcu- 
lated tangent deflection for the sub-chord, making D 
E of the given length. Lay the curve out and let the 
stakes form the center line of track. 

TO FIND THE RADIUS OF A CURVE REQUIRED TO 
REACH ANY DESIRED OBJECT, THE POINT OF 
CURVE BEING KNOWN. 

3. In Fig. 33, A B, represents a tangent, and start- 
ing at a point as A, it is required to reach the point C. 
From the starting point A, measure along the tangent 
to a point B, square across from C, then measure the 



LAYING OUT CURVES. 151 

perpendicular distance, B. C. Then divide the square 
of the distance, A B, by twice B C and to the quotient 
add | B C, the result will be the required radius... The 
line of the perpendicular can be obtained by placing 
the gage on the track, and sighting along it ; or if A B 
is only a line of stakes, as the line of the frog produced, 
lay off on the ground the sides of a right angle triangle, 
15, 20 and 25 feet are conventient lengths, always mak- 
ing 15 or 20, coincide with the given tangent. If the 
main line is curved, the measurements may be taken 

f\ 3 




C 

FIG. 33. 

on the prolongation of the tangent through the start- 
ing point. 

Example: — Given A B =400 and B C, =162.4, to nn( i 
radius. Radius =(400X400) -*- (2Xi62.4)-(-(i62.4 -r- 2) =492.6 
+81.2 =573.8, the ladius of a 10 deg. curve. 

If B C and the radius of the curve are given, A B 
is calculated as follows : From twice the radius sub- 
tract B C ; multiply this difference by B C, and extract 
the square root. 

Example:— B C = 164.4 and the radius 573.8; A B = 573.8 
X2 = 1 147.6, 1147.6— 162.4 X 162.4 = 15996.48, the .<quare;root 
of which is 400 — nearly. 

METHOD OF LAYING A SPUR TRACK CURVE. 

4. In Fig. 34 it is required to lay a permanent track 
to a warehouse at K, from main line, A D. 

Range a tangent, E I, at the proper distance from, 



152 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



and parallel to the warehouse. Then at a convenient 
point, as C, on the center line of main track, lay off 
the angle, D C E, equal to the angle of the frog used. 




FIG. 34. 



A simple way of doing this is to measure a convenient 
distance, C D, say ioo feet, along center line of main 
track, placing a peg at D. Divide this distance by the 



LAYING OUT CURVES. 153 

frog number, and make the perpendicular, D L, equal 
to the quotient obtained. Produce the line from C 
through L until it intersects the tangent from the ware- 
house in E ; mark this point. Take from turnout table 
No. i, in column headed "Tangent," the distance op- 
posite the number of frog used. Make C B equal to 
this distance, and B will be the heel of switch. Also 
make C F, the same distance, and F will be a point on 
center line of turnout, opposite the point of frog. 

It now remains to join the straight lines, C E, and 
I E, with a curve. If it is desired to commence the 
curve at the point of frog, measure the distance, F E, 
and lay off an equal distance, E H, on the tangent E I. 
F and H will be, respectively, the beginning and end 
of curve. To find the radius to join these tangents, 
measure the distance F H, putting a peg at G, midway 
and on line between F and H. Measure E G. The 
radius required will be equal to F G multiplied by F 
E, and the product divided by E G. The curves can 
then be put in by the method given in paragraph 2, 
describing how to lay out a curve by the eye. 

Example: — F E measures 260, F G, 254 and E G, 57.61. 
Radius = 260 X 254 -j- 57.61 = 1 146.5, corresponding to a 5 deg. 
curve. 

If a radius is assumed, the distances to measure 
down the tangents to set the beginning and end of 
curve must be calculated. From E, Fig. 34, measure 
any convenient equal distances, E M and E P. Meas- 
ure M P, putting a point N midway and on line be- 
tween them, and measure E N. The tangents of the 
curve will be equal to E N multiplied by the radius 
and the product divided by M N. 

Example:— M N = 80; radius 955; E N = 18. Tangents^ 
855 X18-H 80=201.5. 



154 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

DIFFERENCE IN LENGTH BETWEEN THE INNER 
AND OUTER RAILS OF A CURVE. 

5. There are three different methods for finding this 
difference : 

1st. The difference in length may be taken at I 
1-32 inches, per degree of curve, per 100 feet. 

Example: — To find the difference in length between the 
inner and outer rails on 600 ft. of 10 deg. curve. Here 10 X 
1 1-32 X 6 = 5.124 it. = 5 ft. xyi inches. 

2d. Divide the distance from center to center of 
the rails (ordinarily 4 feet 11 inches equal 4.9167 feet) 
by the radius of the curve, and multiply the result by 
the length of the curve in feet. 

Example: — Taking the same example 600 ft. of 10 deg. 
curve, 4.9 67 -h 573.7 X 600= 5.142 ft. = 5 ft. 1% inches. 

3d. Multiply the excess for a whole circumference, 
by the total number of degrees in the curve,, and di- 
vide the product by 360. The excess for a whole cir- 
cumference, no matter what the degree of curve, is 
equal to twice the distance between rail centers mul- 
tiplied by 3.1416. 

Where the distance between rail centers is 4 feet 
1 1 inches, the excess for a whole circle is 30.892 feet. 

Example: — Taking the same example 600 ft. of 10 deg. 
curve. 30.892 x 600 -h 300 = 5.148 ft. = 5 ft. 1 % inches — . 

For the easier curves that are laid to exact gage the 
first method is the simplest. On sharper curves, where 
the gage is widened, or for narrow gage lines, use the 
second method, or prepare a table by the third method. 
"BROKEN" OR "STAGGERED" JOINTS ON CURVES. 

6. Whenever it is required to lay "broken" joints 
on curves, and even joints on tangent, it is necessary 
to cut but one rail. Find the difference in length be- 
tween the inner and outer rails of the curve. Cut the 
rail so that one piece will be as much longer than the 



LAYING OUT CURVES. 155 

other piece, as the difference between the inner and 
outer rails of the curve. Lay the longer piece on the 
outside at the beginning of curve. Continue the joints 
thus broken until the other end of the curve is reached, 
where it will be necessary to lay the other piece of the 
rail that was cut to make the joints even again. 

Short rails should not be used on main track when 
it is possible to avoid doing so. A better way to lay a 
curve with broken joints is to use the number of short 
rails (22, 24, 25 or 26 feet long) at each end of the 
curve, necessary to break joints. These short rails are 
usually furnished in any desired quantity with each 
order for rails. 

When it is desired to continue "broken" joints 
through two or more curves with short tangents be- 
tween them, it may be done by adding together the 
central angles of the curves turning to right, substract- 
ing therefrom, all angles of curves to left, and treat- 
ing the difference thus obtained as one central angle 
of curvature. 

When laying track on curves with even joints, use 
one 29-l-foot rail per 100 feet for each 6 degrees of 
curvature, as explained in Chapter I., paragraph 17. 



CHAPTER XV.— ELEVATION OF CURVES. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. The elevation of curves has been the subject of 
more dispute among trackmen than any other question 
relating to their work. It was a bone of contention fif- 
teen years ago, when one-half inch elevation per degree 
of curve was considered by many to be sufficient for 
the speed of trains then, and now, with faster trains and 
more elevation, the point is still in debate and proba- 
bly will be for the next fifteen years. The rails on 
straight track are kept level so that the weight of trains 
may be borne equally by both rails. If one rail was 
lower than the other it would receive more than half 
the load, which would cause the ends of ties on that 
side to sink still lower in the roadbed and then, because 
resting on an incline, the track would be moved to the 
lower side and out of line by the swinging of trains. 
The same is true, of course, if the weight on one rail 
is greater than on the other; the line and surface of the 
track will soon show kinks and swings. 

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. 

2. If a train was standing still on a curve the rails 
would have to be level in order that each might bear half 
the weight. But when the train begins to move some 
extra weight would be thrown on the outer rail by the 
centrifugal force, which develops with the speed of the 
train. This centrifugal force is the resistance offered 
by all moving bodies to anything which may be inter- 



ELEVATION OF CURVES. 157 

posed to change their course from a straight line, and 
may be illustrated by throwing a stone at a board set at 
an angle of say 45 degrees. If the stone misses the 
board it will move onward in a straight line until 
forced to the ground by the attraction of gravity. But 
if it strikes the board it is deflected from its course 
about 90 degrees and the dent made in the board shows 
in a way the amount of force offered by the stone in 
resisting the effort of the board to change its course 
that much. But on railroads the curves are made long 
and as easy as possible, so that the destructive force 
shown by the impact of the stone against the board 
may be considerably reduced by distributing it over 
several hundred feet of track. 

CENTRIPETAL FORCE. 

3. This of itself being insufficient, the outer rail of 
the curve is elevated so that the centripetal force set up 
thereby may counteract the remaining centrifugal 
force. The centripetal force in this case is simply the 
force of gravity, which tends to tip the leaning cars 
over toward the inside of the curve. Now, when the 
curve is elevated so that these two forces exactly bal- 
ance each other, the weight of a moving train will be 
supported equally by the two rails. If the elevation of 
a curve is just right for a speed of forty miles per hour, 
it is evident that trains running sixty miles per hour 
will press laterally against the outer rail, and if this 
pressure be great it may throw the track out of line or 
spread the rails. With trains running only twenty 
miles per hour, the weight would be greatest on the 
lower rail, and while it would tend to depress the rail 
still more, and perhaps develop swings when the ballast 
is weak, it would not spread the track. 



158 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

EFFECTS OF DEGREE OF CURVE ON ELEVATION. 

4. Some claim that one inch per degree for a speed 
of sixty miles per hour is right for curves of three de- 
grees or less, but for each additional degree the eleva- 
tion should not exceed f inch. 

Others start with one inch of the first degree and 
gradually reduce the elevation per degree to -| inch or 
even less as the curvature increases, under the impres- 
sion that elevation should not exceed 5 or 6 inches c n 
any curve. But this is an error, for the centrifugal 
force is developed in exact proportion to the degree of 
the curve. If a one-degree curve requires, say, 1 inch 
elevation, a six-degree curve will require 6 inches for 
the same rate of speed, because the train is deflected 
from a straight line six times as much on a six-degree 
curve as it is on a one-degree curve, and as the cen- 
trifugal force develops in proportion to the degree of 
curve, the centripetal force or elevation necessary to 
balance the weight should rise in proportion. Hence, 
for a given speed the elevation of curves should be in- 
creased according to the degree of curve. 

EFFECT OF SPEED ON ELEVATION. 

5. The elevation necessary on curves, however, de- 
pends more on the speed than on the degree of curve. 
For instance, if a four-degree curve requires 4-inch ele- 
vation for a speed of fifty miles per hour, for a speed of 
twenty-five miles per hour it would require not 2 inches 
but only 1 inch to balance the weight of trains. This 
may be illustrated by Fig. 35. 

A weight B is suspended from a rigid support S 
by a cord A. By giving the weight a circular motion it 
will describe a circle c around a center e, and the angle 
of the cord A B will show what elevation would be re- 
quired if the circle c was a track in order to distribute 



ELEVATION OF CURVES. 159 

the weight of B if it were a car equally on each rail 
at a given speed; that is, the level of the rails should be 
at right angles to the line S B to give the curve the 
proper elevation for the rate of speed at which the 
weight B moves around the circle. Suppose that circle 
c represents a four-degree curve and the inner circle d, 
with but half the radius of c, represents an eight-degree 
curve. Now, if the weight B moves around the outer, 
or four-degree, curve, in say four seconds, it will re- 

a =u ^ S 




FIG. 35. 

volve in -continually decreased circles, but always in 
the same period of time, and will move around inner 
circle, or the eight-degree curve, in four seconds also. 
But the inner circle being but one-half the circumfer- 
ence of the outer, it follows that the speed of the weight 
is reduced one-half. The position of the dotted line 
shows that the angle of the cord has been reduced one- 
half also, and this indicates that the elevation of curve 
d should be one-half that of curve c. Now suppose 
weight B is a car traveling around four-degree curve c 
at fifty miles per hour, and the angle of the cord S B 
shows that an elevation of 4 inches is necessary to 
bring the level of the rails to a right angle with the 
cord, then when the car moves around eight-degree 
curve d it is going at the rate of twenty-five miles per 
hour, and the elevation necessary, as shown by dotted 



160 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

line, is half that of outer curve, or 2 inches. There- 
fore, if an eight-degree curve should be elevated 2 
inches for a speed of twenty-five miles per hour, a four- 
degree curve should be elevated only 1 inch for the 
same speed, as previously stated. 

It requires perhaps more than a passing thought to 
understand the two elements that must be considered 
in calculating elevation. One is increase of speed and 
the other increase of curvature. In one case elevation 
should increase in exact proportion to the increase of 
curvature where the rate of speed is the same. In the 
other, if the speed is increased say two times the ele- 
vation should be increased four times where the curva- 
ture is the same. This explains the reason for giving 
such light elevation in yards and other places where 
the speed does not exceed twenty-five miles per hour 
in proportion to the elevation given main tracks when 
the speed is fifty miles per hour. In fact, some roads, 
while giving liberal elevation on main line curves, allow 
little or none in yards. 

HOW TO CALCULATE THE ELEVATION. 

6. While the theory of elevation is easily understood 
and practice will teach the amount needed in any given 
case, yet it seems very difficult to find a rule having a 
scientific basis which may be applied to all conditions 
of track work. 

The correct rule deduced from Mechanics is 

E - V2g 
32.16 R 

the result being in feet or fractions of a 
foot. The terms employed, v z means the square of 
the velocity in feet per second. This should be multi- 
plied by g, the gauge, which in this case is the distance 
between points supporting the wheel, or from the cen- 



ELEVATION OF CURVES. 161 

ter of one rail head to the center of the other, say 5 
feet, instead of 4.8-! feet, and the result divided by the 
product of 32.16, which represents the intensity or force 
of gravity, multiplied by R, or radius of the curve in 
feet, the result will be the elevation expressed in feet 
or fractions of a foot.' That the rule may be under- 
stood by all, the following examples are made as plain 
as possible. What elevation should be given a four-de- 
gree curve for a speed of sixty miles per hour? In this 
case the velocity is 88 feet per second and the radius 
of this curve 1433 feet; therefore, 88 is multiplied by 
8.8, and the result by the gauge 5 feet=3872o; this is 
divided by 32.16 multiplied by radius 1433 = 46085 



38720 



ft. = 10 inches. 



46085 

What elevation should be given a four-degree curve 
for a speed of thirty miles per hour, velocity 44 feet per 
second? 

44 ^ 44X5 = 9 f»° ft- - 2^ inches. 
32.i6*X 1433 = 46o*$5 

In this example the result follows closely the prac- 
tice of trackmen who give ^ inch per degree for a speed 
of thirty miles per hour, but in the former example the 
.result 10 inches for a four-degree curve for a speed 
of sixty miles' per hour is more than twice the amount 
of elevation usually given. This may be accounted for 
by the fact that the rule aims only to place the weight' 
of trains equally on each rail, and it is correct in this 
respect, and if all trains passing over this curve ran 60 
miles per hour, 10 inches would be the proper eleva- 
tion. In practice, however, the section foreman ad- 
justs the elevation for the average speed of the fast 
and slow trains because where one train makes sixty 
miles per hour and requires an elevation of 10 inches," 
there are several, whose speed does not exceed thirty 



162 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

miles per hour and the elevation needed only 2^ inches. 
This is done because 2^ inches would result in the fast 
train spreading the track or being derailed, while 10 
inches would throw so much of the weight of the slow 
train on the inner rail that it would cut deeply into the 
ties and soon develop sags and low joints. Then, again, 
the foreman relies on the resistance to centrifugal force 
offered by the holding power of the wheel flanges of 
fast trains, and no allowance is made for this in the rule 
given. Hence the conflicting requirements of the traf- 
fic may be adjusted by reducing the elevation neces- 
sary for the fast train to a point where the pressure 
against the outer rail of the curve will be increased, but 
still not sufficient to spread the rails, and by doing so 
the elevation, while still too great for the slow trains, is 
not enough to cause any particular injury to the line 
or surface of the lower rail. In this case, if the number 
of fast and slow trains using the four-degree curve were 
about equal 6-inch elevation would probably prove sat- 
isfactory. But if the slow trains predominated 5 or 
perhaps 4 inches would be sufficient. 

USE RULE WITH COMMON SENSE. . 

7. While the rule referred to is no doubt correct, its 
meaning is liable to be misunderstood and the elevation 
called for is more than is really intended should be 
given. For instance, find elevation for a speed of 114 
miles per hour on a six-degree curve, velocity 167.2 
feet per second, radius 955 feet. 

167.2x167.2x5 = 139779 = t l w inches> 
32.16x955=29712 ^ yi 

Elevation of 4 feet 8^ inches would bring the 
elevation plane of the outer rail exactly 45 degrees 
over the lower rail. To illustrate this refer to Fig. 36. 

The elevation called for of 4 feet 8£ inches is from 



ELEVATION OF CURVES. 163 

B to D, and in elevating the rail B according to the 
rule it would meet the line of the plane D A at the 
point c or at an angle of about 45 degrees. Accord- 

ingly the actual elevation is 

[\ always less than the calcu- 

\c lations appear to call for, 

J| \ and this variation increases 

' I v s as the elevation becomes 

1' I \ greater. The rule, though 

I ' V scientific and correct, can- 

m W not be applied in actual 

I X , ^ — 1 practice, because all trains 

' ■ 'do not travel at the same 

rate of speed, and whatever 
rule is substituted must be based on the average speed 
of trains and the number in each class of service. 

OTHER RULES. 

8. Of rules for the elevation of curves having no 
scientific basis, but founded on experience, there seems 
to be no end. Nearly every engineer and roadmaster 
has his own pet theory, and so there can be no harm 
done to add another. If a road have, say, two trains 
whose speed is fifty miles per hour, four with a speed 
of forty, and six or eight with a speed of twenty to 
twenty-five miles per hour, it is believed that 1 inch 
per degree of curve will be found suitable, that is, the 
pressure by the fast train against the outer rail of N a 
curve will not be sufficient to spread the rail or throw 
the track out of line. The elevation will be about right 
for the forty-mile trains, and while it may be excessive 
for the slow trains, yet they will do no particular dam- 
age to the track and will have a tendency to prevent 
the track being moved permanently outward by the 
fast trains. If it be conceded that 1 inch per degree of 



164 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

curve be sufficient where the fast trains make fifty miles 
per hour, then the following rule would be found satis- 
factory : 

5o 

In this e elevation in inches, v velocity or speed if) 
miles per hour, d the degree of curve, and 50 the basis 
for 1 inch elevation. Example: Find elevation required 
for six-degree curve at sixty miles per hour: 

60 x 6 = 360 . . 

^ — = 7 i-c inches. 

50=50 

Find elevation necessary for ten-degree curve at 

ten miles per hour: 

10 x 10 = 100 . , 

= 2 inches. 

50=50 

But if 1 inch per degree seems too much for a 
maximum speed of fifty miles per hour, the number 
may be changed to sixty, or if it is thought 1 inch is 
insufficient elevation for that speed, forty-five may be 
substituted. If there are any reasons for decreasing 
the number from fifty to forty-five it may be found on 
a road using very soft ties where the pressure of fast 
trains on curves may cause the rail to push the spikes 
outward, thus spreading the track on account of in- 
sufficient elevation. Or the number may be increased 
to sixty if tie plates are used. As tie plates offer two 
to four times the resisting power of a single spike, 
curves on which the plates are used may have less ele- 
vation without danger of track spreading than if no 
plates were used. Still very little will be gained by 
changing the number either way, and experience will 
show that fifty is very near correct on most roads. 
CURVING RAILS. 

9. Bend or curve the rail through its entire length 
until the middle ordinate of the rail equals as many 



ELEVATION OF CURVES. 165 

quarter inches as there are degrees in the curve for 
which you are preparing it. . To ascertain this, stretch 
a string between the extreme points of the rail on the 
gage side and measure the distance from the center of 
the string to the gage side of the rail at its center. For 
foremen who have not had much practice in curving 
rails it is best to also measure the distance from the 
string to the rail at the quarters, seven and one-half 
feet from the end of a 30-foot rail, and this distance 
should be three-quarters of what it is at the center of 
the rail. By measurements taken at the quarters it 
is generally easy to detect a kink in the rail, which 
should always be taken out. Rails which have a true 
curve will hold their place in the track ready for spik- 
with the bar. The more accurate the curve of rails, tne 
less lining of track will be needed afterward. 

The best tool for curving steel rails is the Roller 
Rail Bender. After the screw has been adjusted to the 
proper curve all that is necessary is to keep the walk- 
ing beam lever turning and the bending machine will 
roll around the full length of rail, curving it uniformly 
and correctly; the bender need not be adjusted again 
until there is a change in the curvature. This tool is 
made now with a horse power attachment, which is 
especially desirable where great quantities of rails have 
to be curved. 



166 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

MIDDLE ORDINATES FOR CURVING RAILS. 







Length of Eails. 






30 ft. 


28 ft. 


26 ft. 


24 ft. 


22 ft. 


20 ft. 


1 


INS. 

m 
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ift 

i% 

1% 

m 
m 

3A 
3A 

**A 

3M 

4 
±A 

<*A 


INS. 

OA 
OA 

o% 

Oil 

1A 
1M 
1A 

m 

2xV 
2M 
2K 

3A 

3M' 

3^ 
3H 

3% 
4% 


INS. 

OA 
OM 
OA 
OH 
o% 
1A 

m 

1A 

i« 

2^ 
• 2A 

2^ 

2H 
9i a 

3 16 

3A 

3% 

3A 


INS. 

OA 
OA 
OA 

m 

OM 
o^ 
1A 
1A 
1M 
IK 
11* 

lis 

-M 6 
Iff 

2M 
2M 
2M 
2A 
2U 
21 
3 


INS. 

OM 
OM 
OH 

Of 
OM 

o* 
l 

m 

1M 

it 

1A 
if 

1% 

m 

2A 
2A 
2A 
2A 
2A 


INS. 

OK 

OA 
°A 


2.. 


3 


4 


OA 


5 


OA 


6 


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7 


0% 


8 


01 


9 


Off 


10 


1A 


11 


i% 


12 


1M 


13 


if 


14 


i£ 


15 


1A 


16 


1H 


17 


1M 


18 


11 


19 


2 


20 


2M 



PRINTED INFORMATION FOR FOREMEN. 

io. On all curves it would be a good policy to have 
a plainly painted sign showing the degree of the curve. 
For the sake of economy the information could be 
given on a board secured to a telegraph pole near the 
curve. There could also be a rule on the time card 
calling the attention of the employes, most interested, 
to the subject. There is no reason why a foreman 
placed in charge of a piece of track should not receive 
all the information relative thereto that it is possible 
for the railroad company to give him, instead of having 
to find it out for himself as best he can. Printed in- 
formation from the Engineering Department should 
supplement the track foreman's other instructions and 
in most cases it would materially assist in bettering 
the condition of the road, and bring more uniformity 



ELEVATION OF CURVES. 167 

into the work. If every section foreman was provided 
with a little book giving location, degree and amount 
of elevation of the outer rail on the curves on his sec- 
tion, together with location, size and number of all cul- 
verts and bridges, and distance from stations, also 
amount of snow fence on cuts, and kind and quantity 
of rails laid, etc., it would be placing the information 
where it would be of the most practical value to the rail- 
road company. 



CHAPTER XVI.— LINING CURVES. 

ONE METHOD OF LINING. 

I. Select any part of a curve track which seems 
to be in the best line for a distance of at least 60 feet, 
but do not begin at the point of a curve unless. you 




FIG 



The letters A, B, C to G are track centers of a curve 30 feet apart; A C 
is a 60-foot line with which to ascertain the middle ordinate; B M shows 
where the measurements should be taken to find the middle ordinate. 

know positively that the curve turns off from the 
straight track without leaving a swing in the line. 

Set two stakes accurately in the center of the track, 
60 feet apart, and one in the center of the track at the 
middle of the 60 feet. These three points are shown 
in Fig. 37 by the letters A, B and C. Now stretch a 
cord tight from A to C, and measure from the center 
of the cord indicated by M to the center stake, B. The 
result should be your guide as a middle ordinate for 
the balance of the curve in either direction from where 



LINING CURVES. 169 

you commence work. We will suppose this middle 
ordinate to be four inches. You next move the cord 
30 feet ahead in the direction in which you wish to 
line, stopping at B with the end you had first at A, and 
holding the end of cord which was at C in your hand 
until its center is directly opposite and distant just four 
inches from the track center, at C. You may then set 
track center D at the end of the cord which you hold 
in your hand. This process may be carried on until 
you have set track centers for the whole curve. 

Every stake set for a track center should be driven 
into the ground, with its inside face or edge touching 
the cord, and this side of the stakes should be a straight 
edge if possible, so as to have a uniform center through- 
out the curve and along the inside face of all the stakes. 
This will obviate the necessity for using a tack to 
make an accurate center on the stakes. 

After you have set the track centers for the whole 
curve, procure a gage which is square and true, and 
mark on the gage, with some sharp instrument, the 
correct center between track rails or middle of the 
gage. Place this gage on the track between the rails 
and over the track center where you wish to begin 
lining the rails to place. Then have your men move 
the track with their lining bars until the center, as 
marked on the gage, comes directly over the track 
center on the stakes. Move the track in this manner 
at every point where you have set a track center stake, 
and then go back over it again, taking out any kinks 
or other defects left in the line, and you will have a 
splendid and a true curve line on your track, as good 
as if a civil engineer had set your track centers with 
an instrument. 

Care should be taken not to make any mistakes in 
measuring the middle ordinates, or in setting the track 



170 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

centers. It will pay to take your time and do the job 
well, because if properly done (like well-surfaced track) 
it will only need to be retouched in spots ever after. 

By commencing at a rail joint, this method of lining 
a curve may also be applied to the gage side of the 
rails, and any defects in the track line can be taken out 
by moving the rails to place as you go, but the work 
will not be as accurate or as reliable as by the process 
first given. 

EFFECT OF LOCOMOTIVE AND OAR WHEELS ON 
CURVE TRACK. 

2. Car wheels which are badly worn on the tread, 
or close to the flanges, or which have the flanges worn 
sharp, are very unsafe when passing over switches if 
there is the slightest lip on the rails. They are danger- 
ous also on battered rails, or going around sharp 
curves, where they are liable to climb the rails and 
leave the track. Wheels of the kind mentioned have a 
tendency to hug the rail on their side of the track, and 
as a consequence make a considerable wear along the 
gage side of the ball of the rails. They also wear spots 
along the top surface of the outer rail on curves, be- 
cause the circumference of the wheel being the same 
or worn smaller at the flange than at the outside, the 
wheel must slip a certain amount in proportion to the 
degree of curvature, in order to travel as fast as the 
wheel on the inside rail. When the drive wheels of 
an engine are allowed to run too long without being 
turned off, the groove worn in the tire often causes 
considerable damage to track before the cause is 
known. Badly worn drive wheels break the frog points 
when passing over switches, and as a general rule the 
most of the wear on the rails on curve track is charge- 
able to the same source. 



LINING CURVES. 171 

IMPROPER ELEVATION. 

3. On curve track where there is not enough eleva- 
tion or the gage of track is tight, the car wheels wear 
off the gage side of the outer rail, by the wheel flanges 
crowding against it, and this causes the track to spread 
and become unsafe. If the elevation of the outside rail 
of a curve is excessive, the rails will wear most from 
the top surface downward and on the inside rail of 
curve. It also forces the inside rail below the proper 
surface. 

It does not make the track any safer for trains and 
lessens the number of freight cars that an engine can 
haul over them. Especially is this the case when the 
elevation is excessive on sharp curves at terminal sta- 
tions where trains run very slow. 

LIABILITY OF DERAILMENT. 

4. The liability of accident to trains such as the 
derailment of locomotives or cars, is much greater on 
a curve track than on a straight track, and a large per- 
centage of the accidents which do happen is charge- 
able to the defects in the rolling stock as well as to the 
defects in the track itself. Heavily loaded freight cars 
often leave the track owing to the failure of a truck to 
adjust itself to the curve of the track, caused, perhaps, 
by a defective curve roller, and the greater part of the 
load resting upon one side of the truck. 

REDUCED SPEED. 

5. Curves of ten degrees or more are not common 
on the main line of standard gage railroads. When 
they do occur the speed of trains should be reduced 
in proportion as the degree of curve increases. 

CARE OF CURVES. 

6. The rails on curves could be made to wear much 
longer if those which showed signs of wear were trans- 



172 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

ferred to the opposite side of track before they become 
badly worn. A depression of three-fourths of an inch 
in the surface of track on the outside rails, or a slight 
kink in a rail on a curve, or a joint out of line or gage, 
will throw every car in a train heavily to the opposite 
side of the track. For this reason track foremen should 
keep curve track in the best condition possible. 
DEFECTIVE LINING. 

7. Some foremen have a very bad habit of always 
lining the curves out. This should not be done. The 
tendency of engines and cars is to knock parts of the 
curves towards the outside at the weakest points. If 
the foreman will line towards the inside of the curve 
any points or rails which project beyond the true line 
of curve, there will not be any necessity of increasing 
the curvature by lining so much towards the outside. 

A GOOD CURVE. 

8. A curved track is put up properly when the en- 
gine and all the cars in a train run smoothly onto the 
point of a curve from the straight track without any 
shock or jar that would indicate there was a change 
in the line or surface of the track. All the cars in a 
train should run around the curve rail, and not change 
this position perceptibly until the straight track is 
reached again at the opposite end of the curve. Above 
all things, foremen should keep the surface of a curve 
track as smooth as possible. In this more than any- 
thing else lies the secret of having a good riding track. 

DANGEROUS CARS ON CURVES. 

9. It is both a foolhardy and dangerous policy to 
allow the cars from any road with a 4-foot 9-inch gage 
to run on a standard gage road unless the flanges of all 
wheels have the same "clearance" room between them 
and the rails as is allowed for the standard gage wheels. 



LINING CURVES. 173 

The Interstate Commerce Commission reports for 
1898 show 387 railroads, with a mileage of 28,939 miles 
of 4-foot 9-inch gage, while of the standard gage there 
are 1,030 roads operating 114,148 miles, which shows 
that with all our boasted progress there is yet nearly 
one-fifth of the railroad mileage of the country which 
does not conform to the standard gage, although the 
freight cars of these roads are inter-changeable. 

It is a notorious fact that the cars of a railroad with 
a 4-foot 9-inch gage are the ones which are oftenest 
derailed when running on standard gage track, both 
on the main track and at switches, and on curves, and 
when not wrecked or derailed they are continually 
damaging the standard gage track and spreading the 
rails out of proper line and gage. The heavy pressure 
of flange against the rail soon makes those flanges very 
sharp and dangerous, peeling and wearing away the 
inner side of the track rails and always ready to climb 
the outer rail on curves ; they are derailed by the 
slightest lip on a stub switch, and often run foul of a 
frog point. 

These wheels have to be changed so often that it 
adds another large item to the cost of car repairs, and 
if the whole of the damage to track and other defects 
that are chargeable to this ruinous system were 
summed up and kept account of, we would have an ex- 
hibition of one of the most dangerous and expensive 
methods of operating railroads. 

How often has one of these wide gage trucks 
jumped the track and wrecked a train on some sharp 
curve without leaving a clew for those who come to 
investigate the cause of the accident? Probably the 
track will be torn up and everything in confusion and 
some person will say that the trouble was caused by 
spreading of the rails or an improper adjustment -of 



174 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

the elevation of the outer rail on the curve or some- 
thing else just as far from the truth. 
CURVE EASEMENTS. 

10. The length of run-off or easement at end of 
curves is another question for which there is no fixed 
rule. Some years ago the length of run-off was vari- 
ously calculated at from 40 to 60 feet per inch elevation 
of curve. Then the curve was of uniform degree from 
point of curve at one end to point of tangent at the 
other end of curve, and the run-off was on straight 
track, and it must be acknowledged that some roads 
still adhere to this practice. But it is wrong in prin- 
ciple because it violates the rule that rails on straight 
track must be level. According to this plan a curve 
having 6-inch elevation would require a run-off about 
300 feet long and, of course, the portion near the curve 
having from 3 to 6 inches elevation, could not be kept 
in line because of excessive weight on lower rail ; and 
as the train approached the curve the weight on the 
lower rail gradually increased until the point of curve 
was reached, when it suddenly lurched toward the 
other rail. It is impossible to avoid this swing at the 
point of curve without compounding the end of curve, 
because even if all the weight of the train was concen- 
trated on and balanced over the lower rail the sudden 
transition from tangent to curve would still cause the 
weight to swing toward the outer rail and the higher 
the degree of curve the greater and more sudden would 
be the shock. If a plumb line be suspended from the 
roof of a car, so that the weight hangs over the center 
line of track, the weight will show the variation be- 
tween center of gravity and center of track, as is shown 
in Fig. 38 in ground plan. 

It will be noticed that the weight leaves the center 
line of track at end of run-off and gradually gets 



LINING CURVES. 



175 





farther away until P C is 
reached, when it again moves 
toward and crosses center of 
track, until jerked back by the 
swing of the car and again 
thrown toward inner rail, and 
then swings from side to side 
until finally it rests over cen- 
ter of track, where it remains 
until P T is reached, when the 
centrifugal force, being lost, 
the weight swings toward 
lower rail on the run-off. The 
order and succession of these 
swings would, of course, be 
gg reversed by a train going in 
£5 the opposite direction. This 
S variation of weight from cen- 
ter line of track make it hard 
to keep the track at ends of 
curve in surface and line, and 
this led many roads to adopt 
the plan of compounding the 
point of curves. By this sys- 
tem, the elevation and curve 
go together — that is, a four- 
degree curve, for instance, in- 
stead of stopping abruptly, is 
changed near the end to a 
three-degree for a certain dis- 
tance; then this to a two-de- 
gree, and finally to a one-de- 
gree, which i$ then graduated 



176 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

to connect with the straight track. In this way the eleva- 
tion on the run-off is balanced by the centrifugal force 
of the car moving around the curve, consequently the 
center of weight will always follow the center of track 
and there will be no swings on the curve. Now as to the 
length of run-off (by which is meant the easement be- 
tween point of tangent and point of full curve) it may 
be said that while the old plan of making the run-off 
on straight track requires extending it out quite a dis- 
tance, depending upon the speed of trains, by the ease- 
ment plan it may be made much shorter. If a straight 
run-off from a curve having 6-inch elevation was, say 
130 feet long, a car moving 60 miles per hour would 
have its center of weight which may be considered as 
being 6 feet above the level of the rails thrown inside 
the center of track, about 8 inches in one and one-half 
seconds; then after striking the curve the center of 
weight would be swung outward over a foot in a little 
more than one-half second, which would make a very 
perceptible swing. With the belief that longer run-offs 
would help the matter some were extended 50 feet per 
inch elevation. But with the easement plan, there being 
no swing, it is unnecessary to extend the run-off to such 
great distances. As the centrifugal and centripetal 
forces will always balance each other if the curvature 
be graduated in proportion to the elevation the run-off 
could be safely shortened to a considerable extent. If 
the easement be calculated at 50 feet for the first inch of 
elevation, 40 feet for the second inch, and 30 feet for 
each succeeding inch of elevation it is probable that the 
length of run-off would prove satisfactory for a maxi- 
mum speed of 60 miles per hour. The elevation and 
curvature should increase evenly and at uniform dis- 
tances from one end of the easement to the other. To 
change an ordinary curve without increasing the de- 



LINING CURVES. 



177 




gree to one with easement 
at each end it is necessary 
to throw the track in a cer- 
tain distance, and this de- 
pends on the length of run- 
off or easement desired at 
each end. Begin by driv- 
ing stakes 50 feet apart at 
the outer ends of ties 
around the curve ; then, if, 
for instance, the curve be a 
2-degree curve, throw the 
track in uniformly all 
around the curve, so that 
the ties will be 5 inches 
away from the stakes. Now 
one-half the run-off may be 
lined inside the original 
point of curve and one-half 
outside or extended that 
much on the former tan- 
gent. If there is consider- 
able expansion at the joints 
curves of 3 degrees or less 
may be thrown in without 
cutting rails, but if not it is 
best to get short rails and 
make the change before 
moving the track. This 
shortening of the curve by 
throwing the track in 
equals for each foot the 



178 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

track is moved about one-fifth of an inch for each 
degree of curve per hundred feet in length. This ap- 
plies to both rails. For instance, a five-degree curve 
500 feet long is to be changed. Track must be moved 
\2.\ inches inward and will be 20 inches times 5 degrees 
times 5 (hundred feet) equals 5 inches shorter than old 
line. If the track was moved 6 inches it would be half 
that amount for curve of equal length. When sharp 
curves are to be changed it is best to have an engineer 
set stakes, especially if the foreman in charge of the 
section does not clearly understand this work. Fig. 39 
may help explain the proposed change of line. 



CHAPTER XVII.— MOUNTAIN ROADS. 

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

I. In the mountains track work differs in many ways 
from the method usual in lower altitudes. The climate 
is different, and at an elevation of 10,000 or 11,000 feet 
the winters are long and summers very short, and a 
cold wave may bring snow any day in the summer. Of 
course with the great number of clear days and sun- 
shine enjoyed in the mountains the snow soon melts 
on the ground, but its fall is a matter of deep concern 
to the trackman. Cloud bursts or heavy rains in the 
summer cause land and rock slides, fill canyons and 
gorges with vast torrents of water that rage and roar in 
the fury of its onslaught as it rushes through the tor- 
tuous course of its narrow bed. 

It often comes suddenly, a wall of water from five 
to ten feet high ; then later a great swell that may again 
double the volume of water, finally sweeping track and 
grade bridges and piers and all the works of man from 
its path as if they were but that much chaff. In one 
hour this noisy besom of destruction may be gone and 
in its place a tiny brook runs here and there over the 
clean sand and plays hide and seek among the big 
boulders. Instances may be cited where track in can- 
yons has been so completely destroyed that not a vest- 
ige remains to show that a railroad had ever been built 
there. The heavy long grades are also a distinguish- 
ing feature of mountain roads. They may run up to 



180 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

150 feet per mile on standard gauge main lines and as 
high as 300 feet on narrow gauge roads and the grade, 
be it light or heavy, often stretches out from the sum- 
mit or pass on either side for hundreds of miles. So 
much does the altitude affect the climate that the 
foreman on the pass may be picking ice from the rails 
in a snow shed the same day that another foreman in 
the valley, perhaps within sight of the pass and only 
fifty miles away, is cutting weeds and mopping the 
sweat off his face. At certain seasons sunshine pre- 
vails in the valleys, while the mountain tops are 
wrapped in clouds which seem to form there as moist- 
ure gathers on the outside of a pitcher of ice water in 
a warm room. At other seasons the mountains stand 
out clear in the sunshine, while the clouds drift low 
along the valleys. In the winter the amount of snow- 
fall depends largely on the elevation of the locality, 
being very light and melting rapidly at the lower alti- 
tudes, where the winters are mild and storms infre- 
quent ; but the reverse becomes true the nearer one 
approaches the various passes of the mountains. And 
what storms ! The snowfall at one time may reach a 
depth of five feet on the level before clearing up ; then 
begin again and add another five feet to it. There 
was a blockade on the Sierra Nevada one time, 
when, in spite of all that could be done by rotary and 
other plows, the traffic was brought to a standstill, 
and the snow covered the track for several miles near 
the summit to a depth of thirty feet. Of course in this 
case a rotary could not be used until the snow was 
shoveled out, so that its depth on the track did not 
exceed the height of the upper hood of the rotary. 
For this purpose over 1,000 men were employed for a 
week. At another time on a Rocky Mountain road 
150 men had been engaged in clearing the line near the 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 181 

pass, and had finished the work on the last day of 
April, but the next day were called from their homes 
again on account of a drifting storm that covered the 
road in places to a depth of ninety feet. These are ex- 
ceptional cases, however, and ordinarily the lines are 
kept open during storms by running rotary snow plows 
and flangers over the road. After each heavy fall of 
snow, slides are to be expected. They may start from a 
point high up on the side of the mountain, where the 
smooth slope of a cliff has been overburdened with 
the weight of snow, which, slipping from its moorings, 
rapidly gains in weight and momentum as it descends, 
and gathering all the snow in its ever-widening course 
its front swells up ten or perhaps fifty feet high, and its 
width two or three times as great, while it rushes down- 
ward, carrying with it great rocks and trees that have 
been snapped off at the ground as if they were only 
stubble. When a snow slide crosses a railroad track 
considerable snow is deposited, usually filling up the 
break in the incline of its course and packing it very 
hard. For this reason, and the fact that the slide 
always contains rocks, logs and brush, a rotary can- 
not be used where a slide has crossed, but it must be 
shoveled out. 

A traveler used to the straight track and direct 
routes of Eastern lines will find himself nonplussed at 
the great variety and extent of the curves on mountain 
roads, and the apparently aimless wanderings of the 
line which take him here and there, back and forth, 
first north, then east, then south, then west, in a way 
to convince him that the line was laid so as to get as 
much mileage out of him as possible, or that the engi- 
neer who laid it out had a severe brain attack of St. 
Vitus' dance. But in reality, this apparently hopeless 
confusion is the result of much study on the part of 



182 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

the best engineering talent in the United States. And 
the curves ! What with wide, deep chasms ahead, 
peaks and gorges to the right, cliffs and precipices to the 
left and solid granite walls thousands of feet high and 
miles thick behind, is it any wonder there are curves ? 
But there are other reasons for curves and crooked 
track. Suppose the line has followed a valley up to a 
certain point at an elevation of say 4,000 feet, where it 
is necessary to leave the valley in order to cross a 
range of mountains whose lowest available pass is 
11,000 feet high. Now, suppose that the maximum 
grade allowed was 100 feet per mile, and it was twenty 
miles in a direct line from the point mentioned in the 
valley to the pass. No matter how tempting this direct 
line may be, it would be useless, because the grade 
would be too great — 350 per mile. In order to reduce 
this to 100 feet the engineer must make room for seventy 
miles of track between these two points to gain the 
desired 7,000 feet in elevation, and in surveying he may 
wander back and forth across the direct line as often 
as he wishes, or put loops in it if necessary to get in the 
extra fifty miles of track. But while doing this the 
engineer never forgets the pass. Every crook and 
turn is made with the object of getting a uniform grade 
from beginning to end, and the experienced engineer 
will, when nearing the summit, especially, run his lines 
so as to get as much track as possible on the south slope 
of the mountains, where the rays of the sun clear the 
ground of snow fully two months earlier than on the 
northern sides. The following pages are intended to 
cover only points peculiar to mountain track work 
that are not more fully set forth in other chapters. 
TRACK WORK. 
2. The winter should find trackmen in the moun- 
tains well prepared for the most exacting part of the 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 183 

year's work. The ditches should be cleaned out and 
all loose rock should be barred down from overhanging 
walls, otherwise, later, they may be dislodged by the 
expansive force of ice or by weight of snow and roll 
on the track. If the cut ends abruptly at a deep fill, the 
ditch should be extended away from the track along 
the side of the hill in order to prevent the water cutting 
unsightly holes in the grade at the end of the cut. At 
many places the cut is on one side only, the other side 
being a fill, and where the formation is loose rock, 
gravel and dirt, and when wet is very apt to slide down. 
In such cases the dirt is often cast across the track and 
down the side of fill. After a time this fill becomes so 
wide at this point that the dirt can no longer be cast 
over the bank, but must be carried a part of the way. 
This is a very costly way of doing the work, and if the 
traffic over the line will justify the use of a push car the 
dirt ought to be hauled out, and dumped on a fill. 
When very large rocks are to be barred out or rolled 
down, they may be made to roll across the track and 
down the fill on the other side by laying an inclined 
platform of ties over the ditch next to the hill. But if 
for any reason the success of this plan is doubtful or 
if the walls of the cut rise on both sides of the track 
such large rocks should be blasted before being moved, 
so that the track may not be obstructed with rocks too 
large to handle. In all cases the rails below the rock 
should be protected by ties. If the rock is to be rolled 
the ties should be laid along each rail on the side next 
to the hill, but if blasting is to be done a row of ties 
should be laid along each side of each rail for forty or 
fifty feet near the point where the largest rocks are 
expected to fall. If sufficient ties are not at hand to do 
this a single row laid on top of the rails may do, but in 
this case there is danger of a tie being displaced by one 



184 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

stone and leaving the rail exposed to damage by a 
heavier one coming after. If ties are not to be had 
poles may be cut and substituted. All such rock work 
should of course be done under protection of flags. 
Cross drains should be cleared out, and if the lower 
end empties on loose sand or soil it should be filled 
around with rock to prevent washing or undermining 
the drain. All loose, coarse rocks projecting above the 
ties in the track should be removed before winter sets 
in, otherwise they may become displaced and later roll 
on the packed snow or ice between the rails and strike 
a cowcatcher, snow plow or flanger. 

PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW. 
3. All roads crossing the different ranges main- 
tain an expensive system of snow fences and snow 
sheds. At the higher altitudes, on account of the ex- 
cessive amount of snow fall, fences are ineffective and 
sheds are built over cuts and other places where the 
snow is liable to cause trouble, while the fills are gen- 
erally left exposed because the winds may be depended 
upon to keep them clear. Where the elevation is not 
great snow fences are in a measure depended upon to 
keep the snow from drifting upon the track. The point 
of elevation at which fences are no longer effective and 
sheds should begin varies greatly in different parts of 
the country, and must be determined by experience in 
each particular case. Sheds and board fences are al- 
ways built by the B. & B. department, but trackmen 
are generally expected to look after them, and do light 
repairs, remove grass and other combustible material 
from sheds, and see that water barrels are kept filled. 
During the winter the railway companies should fur- 
nish common salt and about two common water pails 
full should be put in each barrel when cold weather sets 
in, a*nd that amount of salt will prevent the water 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 185 

freezing hard enough to injure the barrels. Before 
putting in fresh salt the old salt, stones, dirt, etc., should 
be cleaned out. If the company does not furnish salt 
for this purpose, the barrels should be turned bottom 
side up to prevent injury from freezing or stowed in 
some safe place. 

CLEAR RAILS OF ICE. 

4. Particular attention should be given to keeping 
the rails in snow sheds and tunnels free from ice in 
the winter. In case the snow shed is on a side cut the 
ice may be thrown outside through one of the windows 
or openings on the lower side, but if the ice cannot be 
disposed of in this way, as is the case in tunnels and 
thorough cuts, it should be hauled out on a push car. 
It is not necessary to do this every time the rails are 
cleared, but only when the loose ice is piled up so 
that it is getting too close to the track. These piles 
of ice should not be allowed to remain in the tunnels 
or sheds in the spring, as ice melts very slowly in the 
shade at high altitudes, and will keep the track wet for 
a long time after the ground is dry where it is exposed 
to the rays of the sun. 

MAKING SNOW FENCES. 
5. Sometimes trackmen are required to make a 
snow fence out of poles where timber is convenient. 
If the ground is not rocky a good fence may be made 
by beginning at one end and setting an upright forked 
post ; then lay one end of a pole on the ground and the 
other projecting through the fork of the post. The 
poles should be about twenty feet long, and the upper 
end should be about eight feet above the ground. 
After setting the first pole in position, drive cross 
stakes about four feet from the upright post so they 
will lap over the inclined pole ; then lay another pole 
in the crotch thus formed by the stakes and repeat the 



186 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

process until the fence is finished. The cross stakes 
may be made from the top or branches of the poles cut. 
This makes a good snow fence, but requires a great 
deal of work to make it. Another form adapted to 
rocky ground where stakes cannot be driven is the old- 
fashioned worm fence, largely used by farmers in the 
East before the advent of barb wire. This form of 
fence, while not as effective as the first, is cheaper 
and does fairly well. Still it costs considerable to main- 
tain any of the different forms of snow fences now used. 
They break down, blow down, burn down, or rot down 
and are a continual source of expense. 

THE ROTARY PLOW AND FLANGER. 

6. The modern rotary snow plow and fianger put a 
quietus on the old snow plow, and "snow bucking" 
outfit, which were always costly and hardly ever effect- 
ive in keeping the mountain passes open for regular 
trains. If the rotary plow and fianger are kept patrol- 
ling the line during a storm the section men — outside 
of a small gang kept with the plow, will have little snow 
shoveling to do except at switches, depot platforms 
and snow slides. Turntables on the passes are usually 
housed in and require no attention. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

7. Foremen are often bothered about keeping up 
the flow of water in the tanks. Those located in the 
mountains are generally. supplied by gravity; that is, 
there is an underground pipe line extending from the 
tank to a point on the line of some stream where the 
intake or upper end of the pipe is higher than the tank. 
The line is usually laid so deep that there is little danger 
of freezing, but as an additional precaution the lower 
end is provided with a waste pipe arranged so that 
when the tank is full a valve in the lower end of the 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 187 

pipe line is opened and the water flows through a waste 
pipe until the water in the tank is lowered by engines 
to a certain point, when this valve is again closed. By 
this arrangement water is always flowing through the 
pipe line, and the probability of its freezing up reduced ; 
but the box or housing at the upper end is often broken 
or filled with sand during a freshet and should be 
promptly dug out and repaired. It is a very difficult 
matter to protect the upper end of the pipe so as to 
admit water freely and still keep out sand and silt. 
Shallow, wide wells with cemented rock walls and 
tight covering are superior to the many boxes, filters, 
etc., used to keep out the sand. 

HANDLING HAND AND PUSH CARS. 
8. On grades exceeding 2 per cent, ordinary hand 
cars cannot be operated to advantage on account of 
the loss of power resulting from the poor mechanical 
arrangement with which they are usually equipped. 
On such grades push cars are used, and as the sections 
are rarely over four miles long the loss of time going to 
and coming from work is not much more than if hand 
cars were used, on account of the necessity of flagging 
around the numerous curves. Before starting down 
grade on a push car the foreman should see that it 
is supplied with a good hard wood brake stick, and if 
two are to be had, so much the better, as one is liable 
to break or drop out of the hand of the one manipu- 
lating it. When the rail is covered with frost the loose 
wheels should be ahead when going down grade, in 
order to clear the rail as much as possible, so that the 
rigid rear wheels may not slide when the brake is 
applied to them. When the grade is not heavy enough 
to bar the use of hand cars the common brake apparatus 
will not always supply the desired retarding power, 
and should be re-enforced by one of the many devices 



188 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

used in the mountains for that purpose. As they are 
all simple in construction and depend largely on the 
style of hand car used, a description of them need not 
be given here. Towing a car behind a freight train is 
rather dangerous, and is generally forbidden by rules, 
but those rules are nevertheless violated in some cases. 
After one has put in a hard day's work the prospect of 
pushing a car loaded with tools up a heavy grade for 
three or four miles tends to give one "that tired feel- 
ing," and if a freight happens along about that time 
the temptation to "hook on" and ride is almost irre- 
sistible. This may be done with greater safety if, in- 
stead of having a long rope and trailing the car far 
behind and running into the caboose every time it 
stops or slacks up, the car is brought up tight against 
the brake beam and held there, or if the car frame is 
too high for the beam stick a long handled track 
wrench down through the draw bar and hold the car 
against that, and it will ride steady. The men should 
always ride on the platform of the caboose, and when 
it is desired to stop, they may step down on the car and 
cut loose from the train. As the trains go slow up 
grade there is little danger in this method as compared 
with the practice of trailing with a long rope and hav- 
ing all the men ride on the push car, which was sure to 
run under the caboose platform and hurt some one. 
Still, no matter how safe it may be, it is safer to obey 
the rules — and walk. 

FLAGGING. 
9. When flagging up grade the man sent ahead 
may often take a short cut from one track to another 
higher up and save time, but he should never leave the 
lower track until the men behind are in a position to 
see far enough ahead to note any train coming before 
the flagman reaches the upper track. Very little flag- 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 189 

ging ahead is required going down grade, because there 
is generally a heavy smoke issuing from engines com- 
ing up, and there is little danger of being caught from 
that direction. But no chances should be taken of 
being run into by trains coming down grade. 

EXPANSION. 

10. The contraction of rails on mountain roads in 
the winter does not seem to be greater than on other 
lines. This is probably accounted for by the fact that 
while the temperature falls very low in the winter it 
does not rise high in the summer, so that the range is 
not excessive. This fact should not be lost sight of in 
track laying or relaying steel. The greater the alti- 
tude the less expansion needed if the rails are laid in 
the summer. The rails do not absorb the heat of the 
sun and become so much hotter than the temperature 
of the air as they do at lower altitudes. At some passes 
the thermometer never rises above 80 degrees, and in 
such a case steel laid when the temperature reaches 
this point would need no expansion, because what- 
ever movement takes place must be in the way of 
contraction. Yet steel is often laid in the mountains 
with the same amount of expansion required by rules 
intended and accepted as correct for use in other cli- 
mates, and where this is done the contraction during 
the nights, which are always cold in the mountains, 
and in winter, is so great that the joints are pounded 
down and rail ends battered by the wheels and fre- 
quently the bolts are broken and the rails pull apart. 
In another part of this volume an excellent method is 
given to remedy too wide openings at the joints. 

RAILS ON CURVES. 

11. Where curves are numerous the "butting back" 
process mentioned should begin at the short rails usu- 



190 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

ally laid at each end of a curve on the inner line of rails, 
if the curves are laid with broken joints. But if curves 
are laid with even joints they will be found to contain 
some twenty-nine or twenty-nine and one-half foot 
rails, and the closing- up process should be done with a 
view of taking- out these rails and using longer ones. 
When reverse curves are close together by changing 
rails on the inside of one curve the expansion may be 
adjusted on the outer rail of the next curve and this 
plan may sometimes be followed from one end of a 
section to the other. Thirty-foot rails should not be 
taken out and short pieces put in when closing up 
expansion if it can possibly be avoided. In theory each 
rail should have a certain amount of space between it 
and the next rail, but in closing up extra expansion 
this need not be done. If a piece of track, say sixty 
rails long, has one-third more expansion than neces- 
sary, begin at a point near the upper end if on a grade 
say twenty miles from the top of the hill, and butt back 
ten rails in each direction ; then by leaving the bolts 
loose and slot spikes out the heat will, on the first 
warm day, move the rails so as to absorb much of the 
extra expansion at the joints of the other rails when 
the bolts may be tightened again and the slots respiked. 
This work is usually done in the winter, when the force 
allowed is not sufficient to justify the foreman in under- 
taking to close up the extra expansion at each par- 
ticular joint. 

BROKEN BOLTS. 

12. Whenever a sudden fall in temperature occurs 
the trackwalker should be instructed to look carefully 
for broken bolts, and the foreman should see that they 
are replaced at the first opportunity. Often rails are 
found with one or two holes bored in the wrong place. 
They may be too close or far apart to match the 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 191 

holes in the angle bars, or the fault may be in the angle 
bars. In either case the strain of contraction is not shared 
by all the bolts equally, but falls on one bolt at a time, 
and they are thus broken in succession and the rails 
pull apart and the ends get battered. It does not help 
matters to drive the rails together and put in new bolts, 
because they, too, may be broken the next night, and it 
is not unusual to see half a peck of broken bolts lying 
on the ground near some of these mistit joints. The 
only remedy is to measure the distance between the bolt 
holes in the angle bars and between the holes in the 
rails, and whichever varies from the standard should 
be removed and put in some siding, where it can do no 
harm. The fault is nearly always found in the rail. 
CREEPING OF RAILS. 
13. The creeping of rails on roads having little or 
no grades is generally in the direction of the heaviest 
traffic, but the traffic does not seem to have much in- 
fluence on the creeping of rails on heavy grades. If 
the trains moved the rails in, .the direction they 
take and the rails on the east slope of mountain moved 
east or down grade, it might be expected that the rails 
on the west slope would creep in the same direction, or 
up hill, but such is not the case, and it appears that on 
single track lines, where the grade is heavy, the rails 
invariably creep down hill. It is possible that this 
seeming reversal of a generally accepted rule is caused 
by "the continuous application of brakes required on 
trains going down long, steep grades. The creeping 
of rails on mountain roads, however, is not as great as 
one might expect. The good ties, the bracing and 
careful spiking required to hold the rails on the curves 
all tend to prevent excessive creeping. Years ago, on 
a certain narrow gauge line, attempts were made to 
hold the rails on a grade exceeding 4 per cent, by an- 



192 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

chorage. Holes were drilled in solid rock at con- 
venient points and iron bars inserted and secured by 
pouring in hot lead ; then the other end of the bar was 
fastened to the straps at the joints. This plan was a 
failure, as the bolts always broke either at the joint 
anchored or at some joint below it. Of course, if every 
joint could be anchored, it might prevent creeping, but 
this could not be done, because solid rock could not be 
found at every joint,, and the expense of making an- 
chorages would be too great. The plan was a failure, 
therefore, because each rail could not be secured to 
something solid, and then the fact was evolved that in 
order to hold the rails on a heavy grade each one must 
be anchored and the amount of creeping would depend 
upon the security of each anchor. Then it was ordered 
that shoulder and joint ties be properly spaced (this 
had been entirely neglected), and each rail securely 
slot-spiked to sound ties. This checked the creeping 
to a great extent, and is the only inexpensive plan that 
will do so. If track is laid with broken joints a hole 
should be drilled at centers and an old angle bar bolted 
on and spiked to joint ties to prevent them being slewed 
by rails creeping. This also more than doubles the re- 
sistance to creeping. 

WASHOUTS. 
14. In the spring mountain roads are subject to 
considerable damage from washouts. These occur not 
only along water courses, but also in the parks and 
valleys where the ground is comparatively level and 
where the track may be some distance from a stream. 
A peculiarity of mountain streams is that they rarely 
cover any considerable territory. There are points 
where clouds seem to gather or form, and sometimes 
the fall of water at these places may amount to two or 
three inches in a few minutes. The down-pour of these 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 193 

so-called cloud bursts is something tremendous, and of 
course in such a case the nearest stream is changed in 
a short time into a torrent, along whose bed are rolled 
enormous boulders, which strike and break off bridge 
piling as if they were pipe stems. At other times a 
cloud may leave some peak or range and, swelling 
up big and black, move out over a valley and suddenly 
dump almost its entire contents in a forty-acre field. If 
there happens to be a railroad track whose grade is not 
much above the surface of the ground in this place, it 
will be flooded or the ballast washed out from between 
and under the ties. Foremen in the valleys soon learn 
to watch certain points in the mountains for storms 
that may cause damage to the track, and when it is 
evident that a serious storm is in progress at such a 
place, flagmen should be sent out to watch the effect 
on bridges spanning the streams involved, and these 
watchmen should not be withdrawn until all danger is 
known to be past. If the storm in the mountains lasts 
one hour the flagman should stay at the bridge for one 
hour after the water begins to rise. It would not be 
safe for him to leave after the water begins to recede, 
because it may begin falling within five minutes after 
the first rush of water, and then in a short time double 
the volume begin pouring through the bridge. This 
may be caused by some other stream covered by the 
storm emptying its flood into the first, thus swelling 
a stream already full. Track high up in the moun- 
tains or near the passes do not suffer much from wash- 
outs, because the streams are necessarily small and are 
usually confined within rocky walls, and also on ac- 
count of the broken nature of the surface, the ground 
being Cut up by numerous gorges and canyons, so that 
the waters do not unite until some point in the valley or 
at least a lower altitude is reached. 



194 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

LAND SLIDES. 

15. The melting snow in the spring at high alti- 
tudes softens ground to such a depth that the sandy 
cuts are always caving in or loose rocks rolling down. 
Most of these cuts are side cuts, having one high wall 
next to the hill and little or no cutting on the lower 
slope. Most of the slides are small and do not cover 
the rails. But if the slide cannot be removed by the 
section gang without delaying trains too much the 
foreman should go to the nearest telegraph office and 
notify the roadmaster and superintendent, stating num- 
ber of feet of track covered, how deep, and whether 
with gravel, clay or rock. If the latter, the foreman 
may expect to find some of the rails bent or broken," 
and should have other rails at hand ready to replace 
them as soon as the track is cleared. Before the fore- 
man calls for help to remove a slide he ought to calcu- 
late the probable length of time it would take before 
assistance could arrive, and if it is possible for him to 
clear the track in that time he should not call for help 
even if he does delay a train or two which could not be 
avoided anyhow. 

BLASTING ROOKS. 

16. At points where large rocks are liable to roll 
on the track a supply of drills, giant powder sticks, and 
fuse and caps should be secreted in some convenient 
place known to the trackwalker and foreman. If a 
rock too large to be rolled is found on the track it may 
be broken by fastening two sticks of giant powder 
together, attaching the cap and fuse, and laying it on 
top of the rock on a flat surface, if possible. Then, if 
a smaller rock is laid on top of the giant powder, -much 
additional force of the explosion will be exerted down- 
ward. Sticks of giant powder should never be hung 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 195 

over the side or laid beneath a rock laying on the track, 
as the explosion is certain to injure the ties or rails. If 
the rock is too large to be broken in this way it must 
be drilled. A hole equal in depth to one-fourth the 
thickness of the rock will be sufficient and half a stick 
of giant powder, properly tamped, will rend a rock 
weighing several tons. But it is best to use a liberal 
quantity of powder, so that the pieces may be small 
enough to be handled readily. If a shot misses — that 
is, if the fuse faiL to carry the fire to the cap or the 
cap does not explode — the hole should not be picked 
out, as the drill is liable to strike fire and ignite the 
fuse, or it may hit the cap and cause it to explode. In 
picking out missed shots it is customary to pour water 
in the hole and depend on it to prevent an explosion, 
but as the cap and powder are not injured by water and 
the fuse may be used under water the safety of the plan 
is doubtful. A reliable authority asserts that 20 per 
cent, of missed shots that are picked out result in 
premature explosions, and this relates to miners who 
are supposed to be experts in drilling. It may take a 
few minutes longer, but it is much safer to drill another 
hole a few inches from the first. Only experienced 
men should be allowed to handle giant powder, and it 
should never be carried in the well or bed of a hand car, 
as a collision may take place or something be dropped 
on it and cause an explosion. If it is necessary to 
carry a few sticks along on a car they should be taken 
in the pocket or hand of some one who will take care 
of them. Frozen giant powder will not explode, and 
must be thawed out by a fire or in warm water. It 
may be kept in a box in the bunk house under a bed 
during the winter to prevent freezing, or if this plan, 
which is perfectly safe, but calculated to give one the 
nightmare, is not relished by the men, the sticks may 



196 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

be kept from freezing by putting them in a large- 
mouthed jug or can and corking it tight; then sink 
the powder so that it will not freeze in some stream 
that flows all winter. A few sticks secured in this 
manner may be distributed along the section, and be 
found ready for use at any time, and save the long 
wait required to thaw out frozen sticks or go to the 
bunk house for others. The uncertain and treacher- 
ous nature of giant powder requires that extreme care 
be exercised in handling it. 

PROTECTING EMBANKMENTS. 
17. Much trouble is often experienced in protect- 
ing railroad embankments from being cut away by 
the current of mountain streams. If the track is in a 
narrow canyon where the water runs swift and deep, 
solid masonry walls afford the most reliable protection ; 
but if the width of the stream will permit a good wall 
having a slope of one in one may be made of uncut 
sandstone by using selected stones from two to three 
feet square and from six to twelve inches thick. The 
foundation should, if possible, be laid on bedrock, but 
in the absence of this the foundation may be made 
of loose rock, laid in a trench about six feet wide and 
at least three feet below the line of scour in the bed 
of the stream. Much depends on getting down below 
the line of shifting sands during high water, and al- 
lowance must be made for the increased depth of scour 
that may be caused by the water being deflected or 
confined by the wall. After the loose rock is put in 
place and interstices filled with sand a line of the large 
square stones may be laid on top with the face in the 
center of the foundation and backed by loose rock 
carefully packed and to a height equal to the top of the 
first line of stones. Then another layer of stones may 
be laid on the first, but at a distance back of the first 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 197 

line equal to the average thickness of the stones, when 
the backing may be again brought up to the level of 
the stones, and so on, making a wall somewhat like a 
stairway the height and width of the steps being equal. 
This makes a good, strong wall at a cost less than solid 
masonry, but like the masonry its life depends largely 
on the security of the foundation. When sandstone 
is not to be had, such walls are often built, but without 
the steps, of smelter slag. This is melted rock, and is 
heavier than sandstone, and when well laid with the 
smooth side out presents a nice appearance. . But it is 
impossible to make the pieces fit closely, and being 
small, they are easily knocked out of place by floating 
driftwood, logs, etc., and if the current is swift, in a 
few years the carefully laid wall looks like common 
loose riprapping. Where the width of the stream is 
ample, or where there is no reason for building mason- 
ry or other walls, ordinary riprapping may be em- 
ployed to protect the embankments. This consists of 
dumping stones, slag or like material over the bank of 
the river until it is entirely coated from top to bottom 
to a depth of from perhaps two feet at the top to ten 
feet or more at the bottom, depending on the shape of 
the bank and on the slope given the riprapping. No 
foundation need be provided, as the loose rock will 
roll down and fill up any holes scooped out by the 
water. The amount of rock on the side of the bank 
should be in proportion to the depth and volume of 
water that may pass this point when the river is full. 
If the course of the stream lies parallel with the track 
the slope of the riprapping may be about one to one 
and one-half; but if the water strikes the bank at an 
angle the lower half of the slope should be at least one 
to two. It may be frequently noticed that a bar of 
loose boulders a few feet high and sloping into the 



198 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

water at a slight incline will hold their place and turn 
the course of a stream. No one doubts that if a wall 
of these same loose boulders was run out into the 
stream it would be swept away by the first flood. This 
shows that the current of a stream cannot be turned 
by loose rock unless it is laid with a long slope or 
incline, and the longer the incline, especially the lower 
portion, the greater will be its power of resistance. 

Stone cribs laid parallel to the track or projecting 
down and outward into the stream are used in many 
places to prevent the water cutting away the bank. 
They are simple in construction, being long boxes 
made of logs properly notched at the ends, laid some- 
what like the walls of a log cabin, or they may be made 
of timbers. In each case they are drift bolted at the 
corners and through the cross stays, which may be 
placed in rows about ten feet apart, and then the 
whole is filled with loose' rock or slag. When laid on 
a good foundation they answer the purpose for which 
they were built very well; but there are objections to 
them. The cost of material and labor required in 
building the crib is considerable. Then there is dan- 
ger that high water will go through and undermine the 
bank behind them, especially if the latter be sandy, or 
in the case of wing dams or cribs it is liable to cut 
around the shore end if it is not well protected, form a 
new channel and leave the crib on the other side of 
the stream, and, finally, it is certain that as the timbers 
cannot be replaced at any reasonable cost when they 
rot, the whole fabric must sooner or 4ater give way 
and leave nothing but a poor job of riprapping to show 
for all the work done. 

WIDENING GAGE AROUND CURVES. 

18. There seems to be no decision reached as yet 
by trackmen as to whether the gauge of curves should 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 



199 



be widened. Many instances are cited by writers in 
railroad journals of cases where more or less difficulty 
was experienced in keeping sharp curves from spread- 
ing until the gauge was widened, when it is claimed 
all trouble from this source disappeared. Such state- 
ments frequently made by reliable authorities would 
seem to settle the matter in favor of widening the 
gauge. On the other hand many competent trackmen 
stoutly maintain that this is not necessary ; that it is a 
needless expense to do so, and at best only a matter of 




gage ■ 




r*»0z™zz*»» 



FIG. 40. 



guesswork, and proceed to fortify the statement by 
referring to curves equally as sharp as those mentioned 
by their opponents where no trouble is had in main- 
taining standard gauge. Now, it is known that there 
is considerable variation in the length of wheel base, 
and in the arrangement of drivers in various engines, 
and the difference of opinion may be accounted for 
by the results of engines of different design running 
around curves of the same degree. A close examina- 
tion of the subject would take up too much space, be- 
cause the form of rail head, or at least the radius of the 
upper corner has considerable bearing on the point 
at issue. This may be better understood by examining 
Figures 40 and 41 from the following drawing. It 



200 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



will be seen that there is room for much more lateral 
motion between the wheel and form of rail heads 
shown in Fig. 41 than in Fig. 40, because the shape 
of the side and radius of the upper corner conforms 
more closely to that of the wheel flange. In Fig. 40 
there is less than three-fourths inch difference between 
the wheel and rail gauges, while Fig. 41 would 
permit a lateral movement of the wheels of one inch or 
more. Laying this matter aside, however, let us see 
what effect the length of rigid wheel base has on curves. 








FIG. 41. 

In the first place, it is certain that curves need not be 
widened for an engine with but two pair of drivers, 
because no matter what distance apart they are each 
set of wheels can touch but one rail at a time ; there- 
fore no spreading of the rails can take place. 

With three pair of drivers, it would be different if 
all were flanged, but either the first or second pair of 
drivers is blind, which makes the conditions the same 
as if but two drivers existed, as stated above. But 
such engines often have two pair of truck wheels that 
turn on a pivot under the front end of the boiler, and 
while they are not considered in the rigid wheel base 
of an engine, still they have considerable bearing on 
the question at issue. The amount of "play" or lateral 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 



201 



motion of the trucks depends on the arrangement of 
springs, journal boxes and pivot, and may safely be 
set down at one inch ; this, in addition to the three- 
fourths-inch play between wheel and ordinary rail head. 
Now, the total wheel base of such an engine may be 
said to be twenty-six feet, but for our purpose the 
wheel base may be calculated to stop at the pivot, be- 
cause the wheels of the forward truck adjust them- 
selves to the line of the curve. Therefore, half the 
distance betwen truck wheel centers may be deducted 
from the total wheel base mentioned making it about 
twenty-three feet. (See Fig. 42.) 

The middle ordinate of the rail between wheels 
a and b and the one-eighth-inch lateral motion in 



». .. 2Zftri)i& n-hetl bajt 




FIG. 42. 

drivers need not be considered in this case. Assume 
that the drawing indicates the position of the wheels 
on a 14 degree curve. For 23 feet the middle ordinate 
is 1 15-16 inches. The dotted line shows the center of 
the trucks to be if inches inward from the rigid wheel 
base line of the drivers, that is, counting i-inch lateral 
motion in the pivot and f inch between wheel and 
rails. When the engine is not going fast the rear 
driver e will follow the line of the inner rail. The 
wheel' flanges will then be in the following positions 
with reference to the outer rail a and b (truck wheels) 
touching the rail — c forward flanged driver f inch 
away — d blind driver 1 5-8 inches away, and e rear 
flanged driver f inch away. The position of the blind 



202 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

driver (d) with reference to the outer rail still leaves 
a full rail under the wheel, its inner edge being about 
on a line with the gauge side of the rail. On such a 
curve this engine would be guided by the truck wheels, 
the flange of the front driver being f inch away from 
outer rail. If the truck had a swing bolster the for- 
ward driver flange would touch the outer rail. As it 
is, the engine will ride freely around such a curve, not 
binding at any point. It is claimed that the gauge 
should be widened because the rear driver flange runs 
against the inner rail, but as the pressure against the 
inner rail is probably less than half that of the forward 
wheel against the outer rail this point is not well taken. 
But if the gauge was widened the wheels would still 
flange the inner rail, not with so much force, perhaps, 
but the pressure against the outer rail by the front 
wheel would be increased because of the engine being 
at a greater angle to the line of the curve. Much space 
has been given this particular type of engine, because 
it is the hardest on curves, on account of the small 
amount of lateral motion allowed by the pivot. On 
nearly all mountain roads the pivot is not used, a 
swing arrangement that allows three or four inches 
side play being substituted, which does away with the 
necessity of widening the gauge on any curve, because 
only the forward and rear drivers need be considered, 
and no cramping between flanges and rail can take 
place. This swing bolster is also used on all engines 
having but one set of wheels, or pony truck in front. 
This pony truck is mostly used on freight engines hav- 
ing four pair of drive wheels. Two drivers only being 
flanged and the first and third or the second and third 
being blind. The fourth or last driver is always 
flanged, so that the engine will not leave the rails when 
backing up. The gauge of curves need not be widened 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 203 

for this class of engines, because the flanges cannot 
bind between the rails. 

Enough has been said, however, to show that the 
gauge of ordinary curves on main track need not be 
widened and but very little on sidings, Y's, etc., where 
the curvature exceeds 14 degrees, and then only in 
case the long wheel base, pivot truck style of engine 
referred to in the drawing uses the track.. Some argue 
that if the gauge is widened the wheels of freight cars 
will move with less friction around a curve, and the 
train pull easier, but as their short wheel base does not 
permit the flange of either inner wheel to touch the 
inside rail there appears to be no reason why this 
should be true. The gauge of track should never be 
widened only where the necessity, for it can be clearly 
shown. Trackmen should hold their ground on this 
question. If they give way and widen the gauge on 
, curves for the present type of locomotives they may in 
a few years have to widen it still more for some other 
style. The master mechanic might just as well make 
up his mind to build an engine that will fit a standard 
gauge curve as to build one for a 4 foot 9 inch or 4 foot 
10 inch curve. The pivot truck locomotives referred 
to are used on many Eastern roads, and should be 
abolished as a nuisance. If the swing bolster type can 
be used with perfect safety without widening gauge 
of curves on crooked roads of the West, why can it 
not be used on the comparatively straight lines of the 
East?* 

*At the meeting of the Roadmasters' Association of America, 
held at Denver, Colo., Sept. 13, 1898, the report of the committee 
appointed to examine this question favored widening gauge of 
curves exceeding 6 degrees, in spite of the fact that Western road- 
masters asserted that they had curves of from 16 to 20 degrees 
which they had no trouble in keeping at standard gauge. In fact, 
Mr. Brinton, of the Colorado Midland, asserted that he had trouble 
with a 16-degree 40-minute curve, which was one inch wide gauge 
until in relaying it with new steel he decided to bring the curve to 
standard gauge. Since then the wear on the outer rail has been 
less and he has had no further trouble with the curve. The report 
of the committee is theoretical and contrary to established facts. 
No mention was made of blind drivers nor their influence on this 
subject. 



204 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

CATCH SIDINGS. 
19. Catch sidings are used on several mountain 
roads where the grade is heavy, to stop and hold trains 
that have got beyond the control of the trainmen. In- 
stead of using a derail the idea is to gradually check 
the speed of the train by turning it into a spur whose 
rapidly increasing grade rises toward the rear end 
which may be 100 feet higher than the main track at 
the switch. The normal position of the switch is for 
the siding, and the switch tender will throw it to the 
main track only when signaled to do so by the engi- 
neer. No runaway train or detached parts are allowed 
to pass. On account of the great speed with which 
runaways enter the spur the switch should be located 
on the outside of curves of 5 degrees or less, so that 
the turnout into the spur will not be sharp enough to 
cause a derailment. But if such a location cannot be 
made, and it is necessary to locate the switch on 
straight track, a No. 12 frog should be used, and if 
small track ties, instead of regular switch ties are used, 
the elevation for the turnout may begin near the head 
block and increase toward the frog. By this means 
the usual flat curve through the switch may be largely 
avoided and the danger of derailment diminished. 
There should be no sharp curves on the lower end 
of the spur, and all curves at this place should have at 
least one inch elevation for each degree of curvature. 
This elevation may be decreased gradually on each 
curve toward the upper end of the spur. Foremen 
should instruct trackwalkers to look over this spur 
daily and remove any rocks, brush or trees that may 
have fallen on the track. The switch tender is not 
allowed to leave his post to do such work. 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 205 

WORK IiN TUNNELS. 

20. Repairing track in long, dark tunnels presents 
problems to the section foreman not often encountered 
elsewhere. They cut through formations ranging 
from loose sand or clay to solid granite. They may be 
straight or curved, level or with a grade uniform from 
one end to the other, or from the center each way. 

If lined with brick or stone they are usually dry ; 
if wood is used there may be wet spots in the tunnel 
when the water leaks through. If the tunnel is through 
rock, seams or cracks are often found through which 
water pours the year around, and in the winter it re- 
quires considerable labor in such a tunnel to keep the 
rails free from ice and attend to the heaved places in 
the track. In all wet tunnels the ballast should be 
broken stone and as deep as possible, but should not 
extend outside the ties, in order that ample room may 
be left for drainage. If a rock tunnel has but few 
seams in it, the water may be kept out by filling them 
with good cement, but if the rock is badly cracked this 
could not be done without considerable expense, al- 
though it would probably pay in the end and should 
be done before the track is laid. Iron pipes and tiling 
are not always reliable at high altitudes, because they 
often freeze up in the winter. Open ditches are in 
most cases relied on to carry off the water, and as they 
do not fill up except with ice in the winter they are 
about as good as any system of pipes or tiling. In 
dry tunnels gravel or cinders, or in fact any material 
makes good ballast, because it is not affected by wet- 
weather. Track in tunnels cannot be raised without 
diminishing the clearance overhead. This clearance is 
a matter of record in the office of the chief engineer and 
superintendent and is referred to when it is necessary 
to know whether any extra high car or load may be 



206 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



safely sent over the line. Therefore foremen should 
not raise track in tunnels without permission from 
the roadmaster. Before raising track the foreman 
should about every fifty feet measure the distance from 
top of rail to roof of tunnel, and if there be any varia- 
tion (which may be caused by only part of the track in 
the tunnel having been raised at some time), the track 
should be raised so that it may be taken out or at least 
not increased. The width of tunnels for standard 



.i/t //■/*///}?//{(/ 1 



Tunnel 




Lmt or TunnjtZ 
FIG. 43. 

gauge track is never less than thirteen feet, and when 
putting in ties in rock tunnels, it is cheapest to take 
out two adjoining ties at a time, even if one is sound 
and must be put back when the new tie is put in. Fig. 
43 will show how ties may be taken out or put in 
where the width of the tunnel is thirteen feet or more 
and the ties do not exceed eighteen to the rail. 

One tie (a) is taken out on one side and slewed in 
one direction, and the other (b) on the opposite side 
and slewed the other way. Where rock will not inter- 



MOUNTAIN ROADS. 207 

fere ties may be taken out by digging a trench (c), 
sloping from the rail down and outward to the wall 
of the tunnel, then pull the tie to that side until the 
other end can be raised over the other rail and the tie 
pulled out. As the back end of the trench need be only 
about a foot deep, less ballast is handled than in the 
first method, which should be employed only where a 
trench cannot be dug. To line track in a long tunnel, 
get a pole long enough to reach from wall to wall at a 
point level with the top of the rail, then find and mark 
the exact center. Next make a mark at the center of 
the rail gauge, lay the gauge and the pole across the 
track side by side and throw the track until the mark 
on the gauge comes even with the mark on the pole. 
This may be done to get centers at points fifty feet 
apart, and then the track can be lined according to 
those points. If the tunnel is dark a torch or lantern 
may be held over the rail to give light. The foregoing 
in regard to tunnels will apply also to track repairs in 
snow sheds. 



CHAPTER XVIII.— FROGS AND SWITCHES. 

TURNOUTS. 

I. A turnout is a curved track, by which a car may 
pass from one track to another, and consists of a frog, 
a rail leading to the frog, a corresponding opposite 
rail, and a device connecting these rails with the main 
track, called the "switch." If a switch is made to 




FIG. 44. 



serve two turnouts, it is called a "three-throw switch ;" 
a "trailing" switch is one where a train on the main 
track passes from frog to switch ; while a "facing" 
switch is one that approaches in the opposite direc- 
tion. 

The common or "stub" switch consists of a pair of 
connected rails, AC and BD, Fig. 44, so arranged that 
while one end is fixed, the other can be moved so as 
to be a part of either the main track, or turnout. The 
fixed end is called the "heel," and is the beginning 
of the turnout curve. The other end is called the 
"toe," and the distance it moves in passing from main 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 209 

track to the turnout rails is called the "throw." The 
toe rests on a large piece of timber, called the "head 
block," on which are placed the "head chairs," and 
"switch stand." The portion of the turnout between 
the head block and frog point is called the "lead." The 
"total lead," includes the switch and lead rails. The 
turnout curve is from A to F, and should be a simple 
curve considered as joining the two long ends ; one 
of them, IF, is the turnout line of the frog produced, 
until it intersects the opposite rail ; the other, IA, is the 
opposite rail. As two tangents to a curve from any 
point are equal, IF and IA are equal. The length of 
lead depends on the gauge and frog number, and is 
equal to the gauge multiplied by twice the frog num- 
ber. The switch rails are spiked for a certain part of 
their length, then when they are thrown, the free end 
will bend to an arc of a circle,- and fit the line of lead. 
KL and K'L' are guard rails, MO is the middle ordi- 
nate of the chord CF and QO and Q'O' quarter ordi- 
nates. 

The stub switch has two serious defects, one of 
which is want of safety. Statistics show that a large 
per cent, of derailments are caused by defects and mis- 
placements of stub switches. The second objection is 
the necessary space at the end of the moving rail, 
which jars the rolling stock, batters the .switch rails, 
and causes some discomfort to passengers. 
( <SFLIT" OR "POINT" SWITCHES. 

2. In order to have an unbroken bearing for car 
wheels on the track rails, the "split," or point switch 
was devised. Figs. 45 and 46 show these switches in 
their simplest form. Fig. 45 shows the switch set for 
side track. Fig. 46 shows it set for main track. The 
rails, AB and GD, called "stock rails," are continu- 
ous and spiked their full length, the point rails, E and 



210 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 




m 



i j 



Ik u 



tf 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 211 

F, are usually fastened at their heels, HH, by fish- 
plates to the lead rails. The heels in the split switch 
are in the places occupied by the' toes in the stub 
switch, or at head block. The split rails are gener- 
ally fifteen feet long for all turnouts up to and includ- 
ing switches for leads with No. 12 frogs. Above that 
number 20 and 24 foot point rails are generally used. 
It gives the best results, combining strength, ease of 
handling, and economy of manufacture (a thirty-foot 
rail makes two). As a rule, they are straight, and 
planed so that they bear against the rail six or seven 
feet. The throw of the point is about four and a half 
or five inches, and the clear space at the heel between 
gauge lines is about the same distance. In order to 
determine whether a point is right or left hand, stand 
at the point of switch and face the heel ; the point on the 
right side is the right hand switch point, and the one 
on the left hand is the left one. 

By introducing a spring or other device in the 
switch stand, a split switch is sometimes made a safety 
switch, so that when they are set against a train trail- 
ing them, the wheels will push the points aside and 
leave an unbroken rail for the wheel, running onto 
main track. 

The first cost of a point switch is more than a stub, 
but the split switch is more economical to maintain 
and safer, making it the cheaper in the end. There 
can be no question that it is superior to the stub 
switch, and is fast superseding it everywhere. 
LAYING SWITCHES. 

3. In laying switches, whenever possible, locate 
the frog with a view to cutting the least number of 
rails. A deviation of 5 per cent, from the theoretical 
lengths in the table makes but little appreciable differ- 
ence. After you have determined where the frog point 



212 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

will come, mark the place on the track rail, take from 
the turnout table the distance from the head block to 
point of frog corresponding- to the number of the frog 
which is used, add to this the distance from the theo- 
retical to the blunt point of frog. The head block 
can now be located by measuring the total distance 
obtained from the frog point. 

Make marks with chalk along the flanges of the 
rail between the head block and frog, so that the 
switch ties can all be placed the proper distance apart 
from center to center. After the switch ties have all 
been arranged according to their proper lengths, lay 
them out alongside the track, and sec that each tie is 
numbered, and in its proper place as it will lie in the 
track. Then take out the cross ties and pull in each 
tie in regular order. 

When pulling the ends of the ties to line, time can 
be saved by using a gauge, made by nailing a cleat 
across a piece of board, allowing eighteen or twenty 
inches to project beyond the cleat. Have this gauge 
square at each end, lay it with the cleat against the 
end of each tie and draw a chalk line across the tie at 
the end of the board, marking all the ties the same 
length from the end. This chalk line should be at the 
outside flange of the rail and have the spikes driven in 
it on the line side. When the ties are all in place under 
the track, the ends of all the ties will line uniformly. 
This is a much better way than measuring the end of 
each tie, with a stick or the maul handle. The switch 
ties should be put in from either end, just as you have 
the time to spare between trains. If trains are running 
close together begin at head block and select the time 
longest between trains to put in frog and lead. At least 
two long switch ties should be put in behind the frog 



PROGS AND SWITCHES. 213 

to obviate the necessity of adzing and crowding short 
ties past each other where the two tracks separate. 

No frog should be put down until the main track 
guard rail is first secure in its proper place, otherwise 
the first train that comes along facing the frog may be 
derailed. 

Before taking up a rail in main track, cut a rail of 
a length that, with the frog,, will replace the rail taken 
up, and give the necessary opening at the head chair 
joint, if a stub switch. Use two full length thirty -foot 
rails for the sliding rails in stub switches, so that 
enough of the ends can be spiked safely beyond the 
switch rods. Have the switch rods an equal distance 
apart, and use five of them instead of four, if you can 
.get them. Then put the head chairs in position under 
the ends of slide and lead rails. The rails should be 
properly curved or the switch can never be kept in a 
good line. As soon as the rails are connected between 
frog and head chair the main track should be spiked 
full, and put to a perfect level surface and line before 
the turnout curve is permanently spiked. An experi- 
enced trackman, with good eyesight, can line the lead 
curve, but it is better to lay it to ordinates first. 

Stretch a cord from point of frog to the toe of 
switch (see Fig. 44), and mark its center and quarter 
points. In all stub switches, spike the center to an 
ordinate of seven inches ; and each of the quarters to 
an ordinate of five and a quarter inches, and this forms 
the true line of the turnout curve. 

As soon as the rods are put on the slide rails and 
main track is in line, the switch stand should be bolted 
to the head block and connected to the rails. The 
switch stand should be placed so as to be seen from 
the engineer's side of the engine, facing the switch, 
when possible. The gauge rail of the siding should be 



.214 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

spiked to an accurate gauge to the point of the frog, 
the same as on the main track. But the curve beyond 
this may be allowed to vary a little from true gauge to 
prevent a kink showing opposite the frog, as would be 
the case if the whole turnout was spiked to accurate 
gauge. Should it be necessary to widen gauge at the 
frog, the guard rail distance should be increased as 
much as the gauge is widened. For a 4 ft. 8^ in. al- 
ways place the side of the guard rail that comes in 
contact with the passing wheel, a distance of 4 ft. 6| 
in. from the gauge line of the frog. This gives the 
guard rail distance if in. when gauge is exact. If 
gauge is widened -| in. the guard rail distance should 
also be widened. Next lay down the guard rail oppo- 
site the frog on side track side and the switch is ready 
to use. 

If it is a point instead of a stub switch, the method 
of procedure is nearly the same. As the split rails 
are laid tangent to the curve, the degree of curve and 
ordinates of the lead will be slightly increased, and 
should be taken from table 2, if you are not furnished 
with plans from the Road Department. Bend the 
stock rail about the proportion of 1 in 40 with a rail 
bender or jim crow. If the switch is made ^ inch extra 
gauge at points, place the angle about 10 inches back 
of them ; if made ^ inch wide gauge, place about 20 
inches back. When laying a point switch in connec- 
tion with a No. 10 frog, it is not necessary to cut any 
rail, but couple the frog at a joint and use two 30-foot 
rails between the frog and switch. 

To get the radius of a lead, multiply the square of 
the frog by twice the gauge where the theoretical leads 
are used, and multiply the shortened lead by the num- 
ber of the frog where practical leads are used. 

The theoretical lead equals twice the gauge multi- 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 215 

plied by the number of the frog. Shortened lead equals 
the following: 

No. i to No. 7 lead equals frog number times g\ . 

No. 8 lead equals frog number times 9. 

No. 9 and 10 lead equals frog number times &§. 

No. 10 to No. 15 lead equals frog number times 8. 

TO CHANGE A STUB TO A SPLIT SWITCH. 

4. The attachments necessary to make the change 
from a stub to a split switch are as follows : Two 
rails, generally fifteen feet in length, with a part of the 
top and side of the ball of the rail at one end planed off 
to a point, hence the name point or split rails. 

There are usually four cross rods which are used 
to connect the two split rails, and are bolted to them 
either at the flange or through the web of the rails. 
These rods are generally numbered from the head rod 
back ; the head rod, number one, besides connecting 
the split rails, is also arranged to be connected to the 
switch stand and moves the switch. The other rods 
must then be placed in the order indicated by their 
number. 

There are also wrought iron plates furnished, which 
are placed along on the top of the switch timbers under 
the split rails to enable them to slide over the flange of 
the main rails and lay up close against it, when the 
switch is thrown to either side. Four of these wrought 
iron plates have an offset in them. The thick part is 
placed under the split rail and the thin end reaches out 
under the main rails. Two of these plates are placed 
on each side of the track, and one on each side of the 
head rod. The other plates are spiked down on the 
timber further back from the point with their end 
under the split rails and close up against the inner 
flange of the main rails. 

When the throw of the split switch is the same as 



216 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

the stub switch, the same switch stand will do for 
either. But if the split switch is to have a different 
throw, to comply with a standard, the switch stand 
must be adjusted to throw the switch a proper dis- 
tance. The difference of half an inch in the throw of a 
switch stand, or the length of the cross rods will make 
an inch difference in. the gauge of track at the points. 

When ready to begin the work of changing the 
switch, lay down the two split rails upon a couple of 
pieces of timber, close to the track,_in the same posi- 
tion they would occupy in track, and let one of your 
men bolt the cross rods to the split rails securely ; 
measure with tape line the correct distance from the 
head chair joint of the stub switch along the moving 
rails and mark this as the place where the head rod of 
the split switch will come ; a couple of ties can then be 
removed, and if a double head block is required it can 
be put in, one on each side of where the head rod will 
be, with a space of about four inches between them. 
If only one head block is necessary, put it on which- 
ever side of the head rod that will best accommodate 
the switch stand. While some of the men are doing 
the work specified, others may be removing- the head- 
chairs, tie rods and head block and other connections 
of the stub switch. 

One of the slide rails of the stub switch, which is on 
the side track side of the main track, is named the 
stock rail in a split switch. This rail should be taken 
out of the track and bent at a point a shoj"t distance 
ahead of the point of split rail. It should then be put 
back in the track and bolted to the main rail at one 
end, and to the outside rail of the side track at the 
other end. This rail should be bent carefully, so that 
it will be perfectly straight from the point of split rail, 
back to a point square with the heel of the split rail. 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 



217 



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218 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

The opposite joint in the main track should then be se- 
cured with bolts and fastenings. Next, lift the split 
rails and lay them into the track, connecting their heel 
ends, one with the rail leading to the frog, the other 
with the main rail on the side track side, and as soon 
as you have spiked the tie plates along under the split 
rails and made connection with the head rod and 
switch stand, the switch is complete. 

As an additional precaution against track spread- 
ing enough to prevent the points lying close to the 
main rails, a rail brace may be spiked down outside 
the main rails, just ahead of the switch points. Or 
better than this is to lean two bridle plates, one on the 
tie, at the point, and the other immediately ahead of 
it. These plates extend across the tie and far enough 
each side of the rails so as the trains cannot rest on 
them. The heel of a split switch is at the head block of 
a stub switch, and the instructions here given are based 
on the assumption that the length of the stub switch 
lead from the head block to the frog point is correct, 
before changing the switch. 

The heel of the split switch should be square with 
the main rail, and the distance between gauge lines 
should be the same on both sides of the track. 
TABLE FOR "STUB LEADS." 

5. For stub leads, table gives all the data neces- 
sary to lay out turnouts, whether single or double, 
from straight track or curves and for any frog - number. 
In the first column are given the frog numbers, the 
angles corresponding to them in the second. The 
third column gives the length of lead, from point of frog 
to heel of switch. In the fourth, the length of switch 
rail for a five-inch throw. Columns 5, 6 and 7 show 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 



219 



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220 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

respectively, tangent, radii and degree of curvature. 
Column 8 gives length of cord CF, Fig. 44. Columns 
9 and 10 give respectively middle and quarter ordi- 
nates when turnout is laid from a straight track. 
Columns 11 and 12 are used in obtaining the ordinates 
of the cord CF when the turnout is laid from a curve. 
The change in the ordinates is approximately in pro- 
portion to the degree of curve of the main track. A 
rate of change is calculated per degree of curve of 
main track. To calculate the ordinates : take from 
the table, opposite the number of the frog used, the 
change in middle and quarter ordinates ; multiply each 
of these fractions by the degree of the main track 
curve. If the turnout is with the curve add the prod- 
ucts respectively to the middle and quarter ordinates 
of a turnout from a straight track of the same frog 
number. If against the curve two cases arise; first, 
when the turnout curve is the sharper, it is then curved 
the opposite direction from the main track; the ordi- 
nates -are obtained by substracting the products from 
the ordinates of a turnout from a straight track ; sec- 
ond, when the main line has the sharper curve the 
turnout then curves the same direction as the main 
line ; the ordinates are obtained by reversing the first 
case by subtracting the ordinates from the products. 
(See paragraph 17.) Columns 13, 14 and 15 give re- 
spectively distance from head block to middle frog 
point in three throw switches, frog angles and their 
frog numbers. 

TABLE FOR "POINT LEADS." 
6. Table 2 is calculated for a split switch fifteen 
feet long, laid tangent to the turnout curve at its heel. 
The angle of the bend is 1 degree 35 minutes or about 
the proportion of \ in 18, and is placed about ten inches 
back of the points. The spread at the heel is five and 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 221 

a quarter inches. The ordinates of the outside rail is 

not the same for all frog" numbers as in stub switches. 

FROGS. 

7. A frog is a contrivance for allowing the wheels 
of a car to cross a rail. 

Fig. 47 is an outline diagram of a frog. The tri- 
angle, A C E, is tongue. C E is the heel of the tongue. 
The channel at K is the mouth. Its narrow part, F H, 
is the throat. The wings, F G, and H I, support the 
treads of the wheels from the point, B, to the throat. 
L M is the heel of the frog. The angle is the diver- 
gence of the lines, A C and A E. The intersection of 
the lines at A is the true point of the frog. As this 
point is too weak for service, it is rounded off where 
the tongue is about one-half inch wide. The frog num- 

TJWE POINT 

jBjant point __^ === =^y 



FIG. 47. 

ber is the ratio of the base, C E, to the perpendicular, 
A D, the length of the point. Thus, if the length, A D, 
be 7, 9 or 10 times C E, the frog is called a No. 7, 9 or 
10 frog. The angle of the frog is determined approxi- 
mately by dividing 57 3-10 degrees by the number of 
the frog. To get the number of a frog one of the fol- 
lowing ways may be used : 

1. Take a stick of any length, say six inches; try 
this near the heel of the frog where the spread of the 
frog equals the length of the stick; then from this 
point measure with the stick to the theoretical point of 
the frog ; if it is seven times the length of the stick it 
will be a number seven; if eight times, a number 
eight, etc. . , 



222 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

2. Measure with a rule and find where the spread 
is four inches ; mark this point ; then get where it is 
five inches ; also mark this ; then the length in inches 
from where it is four to five inches measured along the 
rail will be the number of the frog. 

3. Add the spread between the gauge lines at the 
heel to the spread at toe in inches and divide this into 
total length of frog in inches; the result will be the 
number. 

4. Divide the spread between gauge lines at the 
heel of frog in inches into length along the rail from 
heel to theoretical point in inches ; result will be the 
number. 

5. Divide the spread between gauge lines at toe in 
inches into length along rail from toe to theoretical 
point in inches ; the result will be the number. 

Crossing frogs are used where one track crosses 
another. They are generally supported by long ties 
for the smaller angles, and heavy framed timbers for 
the larger angles. The nearer the angle approaches 
90 degrees the more difficult they are to maintain, 
owing to the wheels dropping into the space left for 
the crossing track. Where one road is double- 
tracked, the frogs are difficult to keep in line, owing 
to the tracks of the double line often creeping in oppo- 
site directions. 

In order to make a continuous main line rail, spring 
frogs are introduced. These are right and left handed. 
To determine whether right or left, stand at the toe 
and face the heel; if the loose rail moves towards the 
left it is left-handed ; if towards the right, it is right- 
handed. 

LAYING FROGS IN TRACK. 

8. When putting frogs into a track care should 
be taken to have them in a true line and level with 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 223 

the track rails which are connected to them. The gauge 
rail, opposite the frog, should be put to a perfect gauge 
for the full length of the frog. In sharp turnouts, when 
all of the track at the frog and running each way from 
it is put to a perfect gauge, there is left opposite the 
frog an ugly looking kink. This is caused by the rail 
of the frog being necessarily straight. It does not cor- 
respond with the curve line which runs each way from 
the frog. This can be remedied without injuring the 
track by spiking the curve track enough wide gauge 
to have it line true with the track at the frog. To have 
a perfect gauge along the frog, the gauge should be 
tried at each end of the frog and again about six inches 
back of the point of frog. When long frogs are used 
and there is very little curve in switch lead, the track 
can be spiked to a proper gauge and the kink, spoken 
of as showing at the frog, will not be perceptible. 
Foremen should see that frogs are not allowed to fill 
up with ice or snow in the winter season, and when foot 
guards for the protection of trainmen are provided, 
section foremen should see that they are always kept 
properly in place to prevent any liability of accident. 
LENGTH OF FROGS. 

9. Long frogs and long switch leads are the best 
where it is practicable to use them ; the rails in short 
switch leads soon wear out. If the switch lead is long, 
the saving effected in the wear of the rails and rolling 
stock more than compensates for the loss of the extra 
amount of steel in the long frog when worn out. A 
valuable feature in a frog is to have it of such a length 
that very little cutting of rails is necessary when putting 
in a new switch. When full length rails can be used in 
a switch it saves time, labor and material. 



224 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

GUARD RAILS. 

io. The guard rail at frogs is used to prevent the 
car and locomotive wheels from crossing the point of 
the frog on the wrong side when trains are passing 
through the switch. The length and shape of a guard 
rail adopted as the standard should be used with all 
frogs in service on the same road. No guard rail 
should be less than ten feet in length, nor over twenty ; 
fifteen feet is the average. Enough of the middle of the 
guard rail should be spiked down parallel with the 
track rail, opposite the point of the frog, to cover the 
distance from where the side wings separate at the 
throat of the frog, back to the frog point. This is an 
ample protection. The guard rail may be secured by 
spiking it to the ties, and by passing a bolt through the 
guard rail and track rail at each side of that part which 
is parallel with the track rail, leaving between the two 
rails a wheel channel This makes it unnecessary to 
use braces except as additional precaution. Iron 
spools or washers may be used on the bolts between the 
webs of the guard and track rails, to regulate the width 
of the wheel channel, which should never be more than 
two inches on a standard gauge track. Also clamps 
may be used ; these are of great advantage, especially 
when a guard rail fills with snow. 

The extreme ends of the guard rail should be 
spiked to the ties at a distance of four inches from 
the track rail. This will give the wheels an easy and 
gradual approach to the narrower space where the rails 
are parallel. Guard rails should not be sprung to 
place with the track spikes but should be bent to the 
proper shape before being laid. A good form of guard 
rail is shown in Fig. 48. 

When guard rails are made in the company's shops 
their ends should be heated and hammered down to 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 



225 



f 

CO 

f 



form a gradual approach or slanting 
surface from the base of the rail, where 
it rests on the ties, to the top. This 
would prevent brake beams, chains, or 
snow plows, etc., from catching on the 
end of the guard rail and tearing it out 
of place. It would be well to take the 
same precaution with the ends of 
guard rails which cross bridges or go 
around curves inside the rails on main 
track. 

IF THERE IS NO STANDARD. 

ii. Where there is no standard 
guard rail used on a railroad, and the 
track foremen have to provide the 
guard rails wanted, when they put in 
a new switch, the piece of rail which is 
cut from a full length rail to let in the 
frog will do to make a guard rail, and 
when long enough should always be 
used for a guard rail in preference to 
cutting another good rail. Very long 
guard rails are a waste of material and 
fastenings, which could be put to bet- 
ter use at some place else on the road. 
Long guard rails are always difficult to 
keep in place, especially on sharp turn- 
outs, because where ten, twelve or fif- 
teen feet of guard rail is spiked down 
parallel with the track rail, as is often 
the case, the drivers of an engine or 
the wheels of a car truck are all at 



220 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

one time in the narrow wheel channel, and cannot 
curve properly. They therefore wrench and twist the 
guard rail, while the wheel base is held in a straight 
line. This wears the rolling stock, besides making it 
more difficult for an engine to pull a train through the 
switch. The width of the wheel channel between the 
guard rail and track rail should never be wider than 
the wheel channel through the frog. If the wheel 
channel between the guard rail and track rail is one- 
quarter inch or or more wider than the frog channel, 
car wheels with sharp flanges are very apt to climb the 
frog point, and run off the track, especially if the guard 
rail side of the track is the highest. The frog point 
always shows wear on whichever side the guard rail is 
too wide. 

Another error in the usual practice is to place the 
guard rail so that its center will come even with the 
point of the frog. The effect of this, especially with 
15-foot guard rails, is to jerk trailing wheels against 
the end of the frog wing rails, and if the gauge of track 
happens to be wide the frog bolts will be broken. Even 
if the track is in proper gauge the end of the guard 
rail projecting beyond the end of the wing of the frog 
will throw worn flanged wheels (because of their 
greater lateral play) against the frog wing, thus sub- 
jecting an already weak flange to the danger of being 
broken, whereas if the projecting guard rail did not 
alter the course of the wheel it would enter the frog 
without a shock. The province of a guard rail is to 
guide the facing wheel flange safely past the point of 
the frog, and where the wheel has passed this point, be 
it but one inch, it has no further use for a guard rail. 
Therefore about two-thirds of guard rail should be 
ahead of the point of frog, and in no case should the 
rear end of it pass the end of the frog wing at a point 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 227 

three feet from each end, so that when laid to place the 
space between main rail and end of guard rail will be 
about four inches. The ends of guard rails should not 
be curved, but bent at the point mentioned, which may 
be done by first heating the rail. The usual practice is 
to put a short curve in the ends of guard rails, but the 
incline thus made is too abrupt and is liable to break 
wheel flanges. 

SWITCH TIMBERS. 

12. As there is considerable difference in the stan- 
dards for bills of switch timbers on the different rail- 
roads, the following rules will be useful to track fore- 
men: 

Rule — To ascertain the number of pieces needed for 
any switch lead, find the distance from the head block 
to the point where the last long tie will be used behind 
the frog. Reduce this distance to inches, and divide it 
by the number of inches from the center of each tie to 
that of the next one. This will give the number of ties 
wanted. 

Example — Distance from the head block to the last 
long tie behind the frog, 55 feet ; reduce to inches, 660 
inches ; distance from center to center of ties, 20 inches ; 
number of ties required, 33. 

The first three of these ties next the head block 
may be common long oak cross ties, and as 9 feet is 
the shortest piece sawed square for a switch tie, and 
14 feet the longest for a single throw switch, the other 
30 pieces may be divided up, when ordering the dif- 
ferent lumber lengths, as follows : 
5 pieces, 9 feet long; 5 pieces, 12 feet long. 

5 pieces, 10 feet long; 5 pieces, 13 feet long. 

5 pieces, 11 feet long; 5 pieces, 14 feet long. 

When odd lumber lengths of switch timbers are 
not furnished, then order double the quantity, 10, 12 



228 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

and 14 foot pieces. In large yards where there is very- 
heavy traffic, switch timbers should not be laid more 
than 8 or 9 inches apart. A switch that is well put in, 
with timbers under it 8 inches apart, will wear out the 
rails without needing any repairs fn the surface ; but 
when ordering switch timbers foremen should always 
be governed by whatever standard is in force on the 
road. 

TO CUT SWITCH TIES THE PROPER LENGTH. 

13. Rule — Measure the length of the tie next the 
head block and also the length of the last tie behind 
the frog. Find the difference in inches between the 
lengths of the two ties, divide this amount by the num- 
ber of ties in the switch lead, and the quotient should 
be the increase in length per tie from the head block 
towards the frog, to have the ties line evenly on both 
sides of the track. 

Example — We will suppose the tie next to the head 
block to be 8 feet 6 inches, or 102 inches in length, and 
the last tie behind the frog, 14 feet or 168 inches in 
length. The difference in the lengths of these two ties 
is 5 feet 6 inches, or 66 inches ; dividing by 33, the 
number of ties, gives 2 inches as the amount that each 
tie must be longer than the last. 

Section foremen will find this rule valuable in many 
cases, especially when putting in a cross-over from 
one track to another. There is nothing gained by hav- 
ing switch ties project beyond the proper line of track. 
They cause trouble in raising track, are unsightly, and 
labor is only wasted in tamping up the long ends. The 
switch ties may be cut off the proper length and num- 
bered with chalk, and the line side marked for the rail 
flange before being put in the track. The work can 
be done in that way quicker and better, and the un- 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 229 

necessary labor of digging out for the tamping up long 
ends can be dispensed with. 

TAMPING SWITCH TIES. 

14. When a switch track has been raised to surface 
the track at that place, the switch ties under the frog 
and main track rail, should be tamped up first. The 
long ends of switch ties should be tamped up last and 
then not as solid as those under the frog. Tamping 
bars should be used in tamping up a switch, and special 
care should be taken to make the ties as solid as possi- 
ble under the frog. A switch is all the better if the 
frog is a shade higher than the balance of the switch. 
Head blocks should also be a little higher ; a quarter 
of an inch higher than the level of the track rails will 
do no harm, and will soon come down to level on a 
stub switch. If the outer ends of switch ties are tamped 
up first, unless the timbers are very large, they will sag 
down in the center and the ends turn up, especially if 
a train is allowed to pass over the switch before the 
ties are tamped throughout their length. 

A set of switch timbers may be put into a mud 
track very quickly, and with little or no tamping, by 
the following method. Remove all the old timbers 
except a few to support the track rails. Raise the rails 
on the supporting ties about a quarter of an inch higher 
than the track surface, and level them with a spirit level. 
Clear away a bed for the timbers equal to their depth, 
and spread a little loose dirt on it, then pull in the tim- 
bers, keeping their upper surface close up to the rails 
and each timber level throughout its length until it is 
in place. 

PUTTING IN THREE-THROW SWITCHES. 

15. The length of switch ties in a three-throw 
switch is found by doubling the set for a single turn- 
out, and subtracting the length of the standard cross- 



230 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



tie. When putting them in the track, measure the 
length of each tie and draw a chalk line across the 
middle ; mark also the middle of the gauge. Lay the 
gauge on the main track, and as each tie is put under 
the track, see that the chalk mark across the middle 
of the tie comes directly under the middle of the gauge 
of the main track. The proper angle, number and dis- 
tance from the head block of the middle frog is given 
in table No. i. The number of the middle or crotch 
frog is found by multiplying the number of the side 
frogs by the decimal .707, or by adding the numbers 
of the two side frogs together and divide by 3, and its 




FIG. 49. 

distance from the head block is found by dividing the 
radius by twice the middle frog number, and subtract- 
ing the length of switch rail. If there is no frog corre- 
sponding to the number of the crotch frog at hand, 
select one as nearly like it as possible, and calculate its 
distance ahead of the head block. The line of die lead 
rails will then be a compound curve. 

DERAILING SWITCHES. 

16. Fig 49 illustrates a method of derailing cars 
and is used in cases where extra precautions are re- 
quired to prevent cars from accidentally running out of 
the siding upon the main track. 

It consists of a head block, a low switch stand with 
a connecting rod attached to the outside rail C D, near 
the end of the curve on the siding, and a head chair, E, 
to receive the ends of the rail, B and C. Connection 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 231 

is broken by throwing the switch which moves the 
moving rail, C D, inward. This guides the derailed 
car away from the main track. The bolts should be 
placed on the rail, C D, with the nuts inside so that 
derailed wheels will not cut them off. When putting 
"in this derailing switch, drive a row of spikes against 
the inside flange of the rail, C D, when set for derail- 
ing; and place rail braces on the outside to support 
and keep the rail in place, when set for the side track. 
It is good policy to use sound oak ties, spaced not more 
than eight inches apart under the moving rail. ,It pre- 
sents a smoother surface for the derailed cars than ties 
spaced the ordinary way, and prevents the wheels from 
sinking between them. 

This switch has less parts and is more economical 
than a derailing switch with two moving rails con- 
nected with rods. When properly secured with a hinge 
joint or pivot, and working on a solid plate through- 
out its length, a much shorter sliding rail can be used. 
A point rail can be used, and the end of the rail at B 
can be slightly turned outward, but there is no ad- 
vantage in its use except to make it work lighter when 
automatic connection is made with the main track 
switch. 

When setting up switch-stand, have the target show 
danger, when the switch is set for derailing. 

TURNOUTS FROM CURVES. 

17. In turnouts from curves, the lead distance is 
practically the same as turnouts from a straight track/ 
The degree of curve of the turnout is approximately 
increased by the degree of the main track curve, when 
the turnout is with the curve ; and decreased the degree 
of the main track curve, when the turnout is against 
the curve. In turnouts against curves, when the de- 
gree of the main track curve is the same as the turnout 



232 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

curve corresponding to the frog, the lead will be 
straight ; when greater, the turnout curve will deflect 
the same direction as the main track curve. As curves 
for the ordinary frog numbers are sharp, avoid as much 
as possible turnouts from the inside of the curve. 

In turnouts from curves the ordinates for a straight"* 
track will be increased a certain rate per degree of 
main track curve, when the turnout is laid with the 
curve ; and decreased the same rate per degree when 
the turnout is laid against the curve. 

Examples: — A turnout with a curve; degree of main track 
curve, 2 degrees; frog No. 9, table 1. Here degree of curve 
of turnout =2 deg. + 7 deg. 31 m. =9deg. 31 m. M ddle 
ordinate = 15-16 X2 = iji inches; added to 7 inches =% 7 /% 
inches. Quarter ordinate= 11-16 X 2 = \% inche?; added to 
5 X inches =6% inches. Middle ordinate 8 J6 inches; quarter 
ordina e 6% inches. 

Example : — A turnout against a curve; degree of main track 
curve 4 deg., frog No. 8, table 2. Here degree of turnout = 9 
deg. 31 m. — 4 dag.= 5 deg. 31 m. Middle ordinate = % X 4 
=3 inches; subtracted from 7 inches =4 inches. Quarter or- 
dinate = 9-16 X 4 = 2X inches; subtracted from 5X inches 
=3 inches. Middle ordinate 4 inches; quarter ordinate, 3 
inches. 

Example: — A turnout against a curve; degree of main 
track curve 8 deg.; frog No. 10, table 2. Here degree of turn- 
out = 8 deg. — 6 deg. 13 m = i deg. 47 m. The turn- 
out will curve the same direction as the main track curve. 
Middle ordinate = 1 1 1-64 inches X 8 =g}i inches; g}i inches 
— yyi inches = 1 Ji in. Quarter ordinate = Ji inches X 8 =7 
inches; 7 inches — 57-11 inches — 1 9-16 inches. Middle or- 
dinate, lji inches. Quarter ordinate, 1 9-16 inches. 
TO REACH A SIDE TRACK WITH A REVERSE CURVE. 
18. The simplest and most economical method for 
laying out a side track, along which buildings are lo- 
cated, is to continue the lead curve back of the frog 
to a point which would be midway between the tracks 
if they paralleled each other. Then reverse the curve 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 



233 



and join it with the tangent on side track at a point 
the same distance from reversing point as the switch 
point is in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig. 50. 

Rule — When laying out the side track parallel with 
the main track, continue setting center stakes as if for 
a tangent from A to B, Fig. 50, making the latter point 
come at right angles with C, which is the point of switch 
already located in main track. 

Then measure accurately the distance between the 
stakes, B and C, and set a stake at D, midway between 



C r --V- 


"^-r-ai 


-* s;= - 


V_4//V T K A C_/f % 


*,_ 


! 
1 

jr 

1 


> 




\^v 


— .>! 


1 


^^ — ^ 



FIG. 50. 

them. The point, R, may be found by running a line 
of stakes from D to F, parallel with main track. 

After you have laid the switch and side track curve 
as far as R, then measure the distance, R F, making it 
equal to the distance, R D, and set the stake at right 
angles with F at A, which will mark the end of curve 
on the side track. A stake may be set at E, for con- 
venience in locating the point, F, and the angle F A, 
or C D, may be squared fairly well by using a common 
track gauge, laid across the rails at C or E, on the main 
track. There is a great deal of good track room 
wasted, where side tracks are put in with a long tan- 
gent behind the frog and the method here illustrated 
has advantages where land is valuable, and it also econ- 
omizes material. But the use of curves above 6 de- 
grees is not recommended, because the track is not as 



234 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

safe, is more difficult to keep in repair, and the rails 
wear out much sooner on sharp curves. 
ROUND HOUSE TRACKS. 

19. To locate the frog point for round house tracks, 
find the distance between and including the tops of 
the two adjoining rails in two stalls of the house. Any 
point where you have laid the rails will do to measure 
this distance ; near the house doors is a good place. 
We will suppose this distance to be twelve feet. 

The frogs about to be used are four feet or 48 inches 
in length from point to heel, and the extreme width of 
the heel is, say, eight inches. By dividing the length, 
48 inches, by the width of the heel, you find the frog 
to be a number six, as the rails deflect from each other 
one inch in six, or one foot in six feet, two feet in 
twelve, four feet in twenty-four, eight feet in forty- 
eight, and twelve feet in a distance of seventy-two, etc. 

This shows that the point of frog must be located 
seventy-two feet ahead from the point where measure- 
ments were taken, at which place the rails were twelve 
feet apart. But to locate the frog point accurately, 
two lines should be stretched along the gauge side of 
the two-track rails running out of adjoining stalls. 
Carry them in a straight line to the turntable. This 
will cause them to cross each other where the frog 
point should be located. Stretch the lines tight and 
lay the frog down under them and spike it to the ties. 

In order to get the true point of a frog the lines 
should touch the gauge side of it throughout its full 
length, and the correct point is where the lines cross 
each other, not the end of the frog point. After the 
frog is located the rail connections behind it may be 
made, and if the other frogs are of the same angle as 
the first one, they should all be placed the same dis- 
tance from the turntable and spiked accurately to 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 235 

gauge. But if the frogs are of different angles (which 
should be the case) they will need to be laid at different 
distances from the turntable proportionate to their 
angles. 

ANOTHER METHOD. 

20. The frogs which lead from the turntable into 
the round house may also be located in the following 
manner : Draw two cords along the gauge side of the 
nearest rails in two adjoining stalls and cross the lines 
before reaching the turntable. Then stretch the cords 
tight, holding the end of each at the middle of one of 
the track rails on the center of the turntable. Swing 
the turntable into line with one of the stalls, and while 
it is held in this position mark the place where the two 
lines cross each other. The place so marked will be 
the point of your first frog. The other frogs will all 
be right if placed the same distance from the turn- 
table as the first one, and spiked accurately to gauge. 

CROSS-OVER TRACKS. 

21. To put in a cross-over from one track to an- 
other where the work has not been laid out by an en- 
gineer : 

Rule — Put in the first frog and switch lead com- 
plete on one track. Then sight a straight line along 
the gauge rail from opposite the point of frog, which 
you have just put in track, to the nearest rail of the 
adjoining track. Where the line crosses the rail is 
where the point of the next frog ought to be located 
to complete the cross-over if both frogs are of the same 
angle. 

Another method when the same number frogs are 
used : Take the difference between the gauge lines of 
the inside rails and the gauge of track, multiply the 
remainder by the frog number, and the result will be 



23G THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

the distance measured along the track, Fig 51, as D C, 
or AB. 

Example: — Distance between gage lines of middle rails, 
7 ft. Frog No. 9. Distance between frog points equals 7 ft. 
less 4 ft. 8 inches. =2 ft. 3^ inches; 2 ft. 3K inches X 9 = 20 
ft. 7^ inches. 

To find the distance between frog points in a cross- 
over: For 12-foot centers multiply 2.58 by the num- 
ber of the frog. If the distance between centers-is 
less than 12 feet, subtract the difference from 2.58; if 
more, add the difference. Thus : Find distance be- 
tween frog points on a No. 10 cross-over, distance be- 



m c 


B^^— 


_^>^>^^ 


_— --■"■" — * 


A 



FIG. 51. 

tween track centers is 12 feet; 2.58x10, equals 25.8 
feet. 

If the center distance is 1 1 feet, we have as follows : 
Eleven feet is one less than 12 feet; hence we subtract 
1 from 2.58 and we have 1.58 ; if a No. 10 cross-over is 
to be put in we have: 1.58x10, or 15.8. If the center 
distance was 13 feet we would have 3.58x10, or 35.8. 
These measurements are made on the main line rail. 

Another method, which is. particularly important 
when the frogs used in the cross-over are of different 
angles, is as follows: Add the numbers of the two 
frogs together and divide by two. The result is the 
average number of frog for cross-over; and multiply 
this with the distance between gauge lines of inside 
rails, less the gauge ; or, where the distance between 
centers of two tracks are used, subtract twice the gauge 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 



237 



from this distance and multiply with average number 

of frog. 

Example: — Distance between centers of two tracks is 12 
ft. It is desired to put in a cross-over, using a No. 10 and No. 
8 frog. Proved according to rule: 10 -f- 8= 18 divided by 2 
equals nine. Then 2.58 X 9 = 23.22 ft. 

TABLE OF DISTANCES BETWEEN FROG POINTS IN 
CROSS-OVER TRACKS. 

22. The following table shows the distance between 
frog points diagonally in any cross-over track put in 
with the frogs mentioned in the table, for distances 
between tracks of 7 to 15 feet. Where the distance be- 
tween two tracks is greater than 15 feet, foremen can 
calculate the distance between the frog points by the 
rules preceding this table : 



Numbers 

of 

Progs. 






DISTANCE BETWEEN TRACKS. 






7 ft. 


8 ft. 


9 ft. 


10 ft. 11 ft. 


12 ft. 


13 ft. 


14 ft. 


15 ft. 




ft. in. 
11 6 
13 6 
16 
18 4 
20 8 
23 
25 3 
27 6 


ft. in. 
16 6 
19 9 
23 

26 4 
29 8 
33 
86 3 
89 6 


ft. in. 
21 6 
25 9 
30 
34 4 
38 8 
43 
47 3 
51 6 


ft. in. ft. in. 
26 6 81 6 
31 9' 38 
37 44 
42 4 50 4 
47 8J 56 8 
53 63 
58 8 69 3 
63 6 : 75 6 


ft. in. 
36 6 
44 
51 

58 4 
65 8 
73 

80 3 
87 6 


ft in. 
41 6 

50 
58 
66 4 
74 8 
83 
91 3 
39 6 


ft. in. 

46 

56 

65 

74 4 

83 8 

93 
102 8 
111 6 




1 to 5 


ft in. 
50 6 


i to 6 


62 


1 to 7 1. . 

1 to 8 


72 
82 4 


1 to 9 


92 8 


1 to 10 


103 


1 to 11 


113 3 


1 to 12 


123 6 







As the above table gives the distance in feet from 
a point on the gauge rail opposite the point of the first 
frog to the point of the frog in the next switch of the 
cross-over track, the length of the second frog from 
point to heel must be deducted from the distance 
given, when preparing the rails which cross between 
the tracks. 

A reverse curve can be made longer in the cross- 
over between tracks when they are very far apart, and 
there is not room to put it in the regular way. 



238 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

PARALLEL TRACKS. 

23. Where a track runs from a main track and it is 
used to throw off switches from, and if the track from 
such switches is to run parallel to the main track, inex- 
perienced foremen find it difficult to locate the frog -for 
a new track so as to have straight track behind it. The 
place for the pcint of frog for a new track can be easily 
located by the following method : 

Rule — Sight a line .with stakes where you find the 
outside of the rail should come back of the fro? on 




FIG. 52. 

your intended track, and parallel to the main track, or 
the nearest track which runs in the same direction. 
Then with stakes carry the line perfectly straight until 
it crosses the first rail of the ladder tracjc. This is 
where the frog point should be placed for the new 
track. 

The above rule will always work well where the two 
tracks separate behind the frog at an angle corre- 
sponding to the angle of the frog, but should it be 
necessary to maintain two tracks, running from a 
switch, which diverge at an angle that will not suit 
the frogs you intended to use, you can ascertain by 
the method shown in the diagram, Fig. 52, what kind 
of a frog will be needed. 
HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE KIND OF FROG NEEDED. 

24. The lines in diagram represent the rails of two 
tracks. Measure across between the track rails at the 
points marked A and B, each of which is an equal 
distance from C, which marks where the rails cross or 



FROGS AND SWITCHES. 239 

point of intersection ; then measure the distance, C B. 
Now divide the distance, C B, by the distance, A B, 
and the result will be the number of the frog- required. 
Suppose the distance, A B, is twelve inches, and the 
distance, C B, nine feet; it would require a one to 
nine frog, or as it is sometimes called, a number nine 
frog. The distance, A B, may be measured where the 
rails or lines are only six or eight inches apart, but the 
result will always be the same in proportion to the dis- 
tance from C to B. Where tracks are to run parallel 
with each other, it is best to gauge the distance they 
are to be apart by measuring from the nearest rail of 
a permanent track adjoining, if in good line, or from 
the center of the main track in yards. 

In ladder tracks the distance between frog points, 
where they are all of the same number, is equal to the 
distance between track centers multiplied by the frog 
number. 

SPUR TRACKS. 

25. Spur tracks should be laid with a view to avoid- 
ing any extra switching. Always put in a switch on 
that end of the spur track which is in the direction 
in which the loaded cars are to be hauled. This matter 
does not always receive the attention it deserves. It 
is much easier to throw empty cars back upon a spur 
track than to head an engine in after the loads, and 
push them ahead to the nearest station to be switched 
there again. Much valuable time could be saved if 
all spur sidings could be dispensed with. Time is 
money in all the departments of a railroad, and those 
trackmen who supervise the laying of any new tracks, 
especially in yards, should lay all tracks with a view 
to the most efficient handling of cars. Help the train 
department all you can. Put a switch at both ends of 
a track whenever it can be done at a reasonable cost. 



CHAPTER XIX.— USE AND CARE OF TRACK 
TOOLS. 

TIDY TOOL HOUSES. 

1. Tidy Tool Houses. — Most railways furnish tool 
houses with ample room in them for a hand car and all 
the tools necessary for a section gang, and with a little 
pains on our part we can arrange them so that each 
tool may have its own place, and kept there when not 
in use. By taking a look at a foreman's tool house a 
fair idea of his ability may be gained. If he has a tidy 
and well arranged tool house, with the hand car and 
tools all in good working order, you can rest assured 
that there is some well-kept track not far away. 

Foremen are expected to send their tools to the 
shops to be repaired, or to be replaced by new ones, 
whenever necessary, so there is seldom any excuse for 
having tools on hand which are not in working order. 
There is probably a difference of opinion as to just 
how each tool should be used, but it is admitted that 
there should be an individual system of use and care 
of track tools, and that the best should be given. 
THE PRINCIPAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS. 

2. The Axe. — The first thing needed for it is a 
handle, which should be snugly fitted to it, and firmly 
wedged in. Next it should be ground sharp, and kept 
in that condition, for when an axe is needed it should 
be sharp; it should not be used for anything but chop- 
ing or splitting. 

3. Adzes. — It takes some practice to learn to use an 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS. 241 

adze properly, and leave the ties smoothly adzed. In 
adzing down old ties, adze deep enough so that the 
edge of the adze will go beneath the flange of rail and 
thus avoid dulling the adze. When adzing ties on 
curves, to turn rails in, great care should be exercised, 
so as to adze ties uniformly and a proper depth, always 
keeping a lookout for stub spikes, or anything which 
will dull adze unnecessarily. The adze should not be 
used as a hammer, nor for anything but adzing. A 
handle is very easily adjusted to this tool, but is easily 
broken if not handled rightly. 

4. Brooms. — The proper and diligent use of them in 
the tcol house and on the hand car floor, on and around 
depot platforms and other buildings, which the section 
men have to keep clean, helps their appearance won- 
derfully. Brooms are often handy for cleaning off 
ties when gauging track or turning in rails. 

5. Hand Cars. — Oil boxes should be frequently re- 
packed, as the packing soon becomes filled with sand. 
All boxings kept fitted snug; when they become worn, 
file or grind them down. Keep all keys tight, as well as 
all bolts and nuts. Do not let cogs mash deep enough to 
grind. See that driving arm is not too short or too long 
so as to throw one end of walking beam too high and 
the other too low. Drop a little oil on all the bearings 
often. Do not use much at a time, but apply often. 
Care should be exercised when putting car on and off 
the track. A little pains should be taken to 
instruct men in pumping a car so that they pump 
steady and together, and in going up grade or against 
the wind to pump on the top stroke as well as the 
down. Keep the car going at a brisk rate, for it is 
easier to keep them going that way than it is to pump 
them when the speed gets down too low. 



242 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

Hand cars are in universal use, and a car which will 
give good service on an American road will be equally 
desirable and useful on any foreign railroad. To be 
desirable a hand car should be light, speedy, strong, 
durable, and of a simple construction, so that the sec- 
tion men can perform minor repairs without having to 
send to shop. With these qualities it will pay for itself 
in a year in time saved and useful work performed. 

Several manufacturers make a specialty of building 
improved hand cars, any of which are preferable to the 

"home made" ones 
which come from the 
railway shop. The 
best known car in all 
parts of the United 
Tw^^^^^ffis^^^^^^S^ 3 '' States, and one in 

most extended use is 
the Sheffield. Fig. 53 
FIG. 53. shows a perspective 

view of the No. 1 Standard Section Hand Car for 
standard gauge, having a platform six feet long by 
four feet four inches wide. The wheels are made either 
with wooden centers or all steel, but the present ten- 
dency is toward steel wheels, the whole car weighing 
only 510 pounds. 

All Sheffield cars are equipped with machine-cut 
gears, which insures exact fit of the teeth of the pinion 
and drive wheel, with a consequent easy 
and smooth motion, saving both time and 
labor in running over section. Another 
important improvement is the method of 
fastening the gear wheels to their axles, 
shown in Fig. 54, which does away with FI G. 54. 
the usual key entirely, and they can be given any de- 








USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS. 243 

gree of tightness by screwing up nut, which forces the 
hollow cone of wheel hub on to the solid cone of shaft, 
while the wheel remains perfectly concentric with 
shaft, insuring absolutely correct rotary motion. This 
is particularly important with the pinion gear, as a 
slight deflection, or eccentricity will bind on the drive 
wheel and make the car hard running. In addition to 
the above mentioned No. i Standard Section Hand 
Car, some seven or eight modified forms are made by 
the same company, thus supplying various wants of 
railway companies, but all possess the above mentioned 
desirable features. 

What is here mentioned of the hand cars applies 
also to a certain extent to velocipedes ; they are made 
with three or four wheels, arranged to be propelled by 
hand as well as driven by mechanical motors. This 
latter mode of operation has gained in favor of late 
years and is particularly advantageous for roadmasters 
who have to cover long distances, or for inspection 
trips where considerable speed is required, and where 
the working of the levers of a hand car would interfere 
with the view of the inspectors. For short distances 
the one-man Sheffield Velocipede Car cannot be ex- 
celled for speed and easy running. 

6. Claw Bars. — There is nothing which will cause 
more annoyance than a poor claw bar, one that the 
claws are too far apart at toe or too close together, 
neck not properly bent, heel out of proportion to claws, 
and so on. Most of these things can be remedied at 
shops. When they are sent in to be remedied a letter 
and a print should be sent along if possible, showing 
what changes should be made. A good many of the 
claw bars now in use would be more valuable to the 
company in the scrap pile than anywhere else. 



244 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

7. Cross Cut Saws. — Strict attention should be paid 
to filing and setting of them. They should be carried 
on the car and kept in tool house in such position that 
the teeth will not come in contact with other metal 
tools. Men should stand squarely opposite each other 
when sawing and drag the saw toward him, but never 
try to push the saw from him. A saw in good running 
order does not need any crowding. 

8. Cold Chisels. — A full complement of these 
should always be kept on hand. It is the custom when 
using a chisel to stick any kind of a hard wood piece in 
for a handle, but it pays to fit good handles to chisels, 
as well as other tools, so you will not have to stop to 
drive handles in while cutting a rail, and it is easier 
to hold a chisel rightly if it has a good straight handle 
in. A great many chisels are spoiled by not holding 
properly. If a chisel has good temper and is not 
broken too badly or is very dull it is better to grind 
them down than to send them to the shop; but if they 
cannot be ground down profitably, they sould be sent 
to the shop at once. 

9. Track Gauge. — The gauge should be made to 
serve a better purpose than only to mark the standard 
■distance between the rails. A wooden gauge might do 
as well when ends are well bound with iron, but a 
metal gauge is better. There should be a fork on the 
one end to prevent gauge from falling on its side when 
spiking, and also to square the gauge across the track. 
This end should be fastened solid, either welded or 
screwed and riveted to the end of a wrought iron pipe. 
On the other end of this pipe being the single end of 
the gauge, the lug should be adjustable; it should 
screw up tight on the pipe when standard gauge was 
desired, and if thread was 16 to 1 inch turn the lug 



USE AND CARE OP TRACK TOOLS. 245 

once for every degree of curve, and if thread was 8 to i 
inch turn the lug once for every two degrees to widen 
gauge on curves. A small thumb screw through the 
adjustable lug, with a narrow seat planed on pipe for 
same, would hold the lug in place, and this screw seat 
would also hold oil to keep thread from rusting and 
turning hard. The lugs should be the same size on 
both ends — if inches wide and if inches deep. This 
would fill the bill under all circumstances and would 
be simple, strong and no tender parts to break; would 
adjust to widen gauge on curves; the width of the lugs 
is standard guard rail distance, the depth of the lugs 
will show if blocks in switches are clear of wheel 
flanges, allowing one-fourth inch extra as flanges on 
wheels are generally i^- inches deep; the wide lugs on 
double end of gauge would fit snugly between wing 
rail and point of frog and stay there, while the single 
end would show where to set the guard rail, regardless 
how wide the track was. This gauge would pay for 
itself in -the saving of untimely wear of frog points 
alone, besides other service it would do while gauging 
track on curves. 

10. Lining Bars. — Most of the bars in use are iron 
and are too heavy. A steel bar weighing about twenty 
pounds, with chisel point on square or bottom end of 
bar, and sharp pointed at small end, would be about the 
right thing. Lining track is probably one of the most 
difficult things a foreman has to do if he wants his track 
in perfect line. Where track has just been raised, take 
only enough men and bars to move track easily. Don't 
let men stick the bars in the ground at too great an 
angle; if they do they will raise the track when they 
throw it over, and if the ballast is sandy some of it will 
run under the ties and spoil the surface of track. When 
lining track where it is hard to move, bars should be 



246 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

stuck firmly in the ground before heaving on them, for 
if one bar slips all the other men have to wait while that 
one is being replaced. Men must always pull together, 
and always be ready when the word is given; the fore- 
man should keep as far back as he can, to see Well. To 
avoid putting swings in the track, some of the little 
defects can be taken out at short range. 

ii. Lanterns. — They should always be kept in per- 
fect order, for you never know at what moment you will 
need them, aud you are always in a hurry when you do. 
The lanterns usually furnished- are good to use for 
signals, but give little light to work by. A couple of 
engineer's torches will give more light to work by 
than a dozen lanterns. Every trackman should know 
all lamp signals thoroughly, and when placing danger 
signals or slow signals, care should be taken to place 
them in plain view of an approaching train, and be sure 
to have them out the full distance required by your 
book of rules. If you err at all, be on the safe side. It 
is a short job to place signals, and serious accidents will 
be prevented often if they are put out properly. If you 
have any doubt about the stability of a piece of track, 
don't hesitate to use your signals. Be on the safe side. 
Lanterns, after being used, should have the oil taken 
out and put back in the oil can. Clean the globes, trim 
the wick, and set them in a safe place. If lanterns set 
a long time without use the wicks should be changed, 
or they will not burn well. When putting out lanterns 
as danger or slow signals, be sure they are in good trim 
and plenty of oil. Signal oil gets too thick if it stands 
very long in small cans. In case it does not burn good, 
add coal oil to it. A few extra globes should always be 
kept on hand. 

12. Spike Hammers. — About eight pounds is the 
right weight. Select the straightest handle for this and 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS. 247 

fit it snugly and wedge it good and tight. If the eye 
is not straight in hammer, which is often the case, take 
a rat-tail file and file it out as near straight as possible, 
for a poorly hung hammer will always be an annoy- 
ance. If face of hammer gets too rounding, file or 
grind it down. The next thing is to know how to drive 
a spike properly with it. Stand at side of rail to spike 
and start the spike perpendicular ; never allow the 
spike to slant under the rail.. A spike may be leaned 
a little from you when started, but the second blow 
should straighten it up. Stand with heels close to- 
gether, and use full length of handle, and give long, 
swinging strokes, when spiking. 

13. Shovels. — The blade should be ten inches wide 
and twelve inches long and handle thirty inches and 
necessarily must have good material in them and be 
well made. About seven pounds is a good weight for 
shovels. It is not every man who can make a good 
shoveler, although it looks easy enough at first glance. 
It takes considerable practice to make a good shoveler, 
and it needs experience to tamp ties properly, but after 
once learning it is easy enough and nice work. In 
dressing in ballast a man needs to be quick and handy 
with a shovel and a good eye to make the work uniform 
and look neat ; but the most important part is in tamp- 
ing where the ballast is sandy ; centers are liable to be 
humped if we are not careful. Be sure and tamp well 
under the rail. A man should learn to shovel left as 
well as right handed. When a shovel gets weak in the 
handle or worn short lay it away for cutting weeds and 
take a new one for tamping or casting dirt. If there 
is any mud sticking to shovels clean them off when you 
quit work. 
Wherever there are posts, telegraph poles, cross- 



24S THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

ings, signs, or whistling posts to be set or gravel to 
be loaded on cars, long-handled, round-pointed shovels 
are the best. 

Wherever there is cinders, coal or sawdust to be 
handled the scoops should be used, for time will be 
wasted trying to handle it with small shovels. 

A shovel should not be left out in the rain when 
not in use, as the wood in the handle swells so as to 
turn the edges of the straps out and split the handle 
into slivers or burst the rivets. When a shovel is left 
exposed to the hot rays of the sun, when not in use, 
the grip on the handle checks, and we all know how 
disagreeable it is to have the pieces rattling in your 
hand when shoveling; besides, the untimely breakage 
-of the handle making the shovel of no further use. To 
prevent this all you have to do when leaving your 
shovel any length of time, lay it down and cover the 
grip with a handful of dirt or gravel or anything at all 
to shade it, and you will see the small trouble will be 
well rewarded in always having a good handle on your 
shovel. The shovel should never be used instead of a 
bar for holding up ties when spiking, nor as a bar or 
pick for breaking loose rocks and dirt, nor as a pick 
for putting in ties in track, nor as a mattock for cutting 
roots and stumps, nor as an ax for cutting brush and 
logs, and a man that does not use his shovel in this 
manner knows all the better how to use it for the pur- 
pose it is intended. 

14. Scythes. — The brush hook comes in for more 
abuse than should by right be inflicted. In cutting 
brush on rocky dumps or on slope of cuts the general 
practice by inexperienced men is to slash right and left 
in rock and mud, and if the brush is too heavy for the 
hook, still bang away until handle breaks or until 



XJISE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS. 249 

pieces break out in the edge, at times so bad as to make 
the hook of no further use. Where such is the practice 
it should be stopped, and the hook used for small brush 
and the axe for big brush. 

The brush scythe is sometimes used for small brush, 
and comes in for the same abuse in proportion as the 
hook. It is best to dispense with both of them, and, 
instead, used a short sickle, about five inches long, on 
the blade, with a handle affording a good hold, to pre- 
vent the hand from slipping. Having tried this for 
small brush, anything under one inch in diameter, and 
the axe for the bigger brush, it will be found that a man 
can nearly double the work done with the brush hook 
or scythe. 

The grass scythe is like all other track tools abused, 
along with grass, all sorts of rubbish, and even pieces 
of old ties are cut, and after using a new scythe for a 
few days, it is twisted up like a raw poplar board, after 
being exposed to the July sun for a few days, the han- 
dles of the scythe being twisted in opposite directions, 
as evidence of the struggle. A scythe should be kept 
sharp and used for mowing grass, and not be left out, 
exposed to the sun or to rust. 

15. Tamping Bars. — They should be made of seven- 
eighths iron, length 5^ feet, sharp-pointed at upper end, 
have a tamping face four inches wide, and five-eighths 
inch thick, and weigh about 14 pounds, and the neck 
bent so that the tamping face will be in right position 
when bar is held at an angle of about 45 degrees. When 
tamping face gets too thin send them to shop to be re- 
faced. Always be sure to remove enough dirt so that 
tie can be well tamped; reach under the rail so that all 
the space under the tie will be tamped. Never slight 
this work nor allow the men to do so. Have them un- 
derstand that they must be particular about this work. 



250 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

16. Track Flags. — It is very often necessary to 
make use of the flags, and it is very important that we 
should protect ourselves against any possible accident. 
We must not take it for granted that a train will not 
pass before a certain time, or that a certain place will 
carry a few more trains safely over. Always be on the 
safe side, remembering that in protecting ourselves 
we are protecting trainmen, passengers, property, and 
all concerned. A great many lives have been lost, and 
a vast amount of property destroyed, by improper flag- 
ging or no flagging at all. Always have the flags with 
you, and when placing them always place them at the 
extreme limit required by the book of rules which you 
are working under. Never place them short of the 
limit. Always send a trusty man to do the flagging. 
If flags are left without a flagman, be sure the stick is 
driven firmly into the ground on the engineer's side, 
and about three feet from the rail ; flags when not in 
use should be encased in something that is water proof. 

Where a flag is left without a flagman, torpedoes 
should always be left so as to be sure the flag will not 
be passed unnoticed. Always keep a supply on hand. 

17. Tape Lines. — It very often happens that a tape 
line, after being wet two or three times, will shrink, 
and be too short ; measure them once in a while and 
see if they are accurate. Of course it is best not to 
get them wet, but sometimes it cannot be avoided. 
Steel tapes would be the best, but they are not fur- 
nished. Have a box to keep the tape line in when not 
in your pocket. It is important that you always make 
accurate measurements ; it will often save lots of trou- 
ble. 

18. Track Level. — When surfacing track never try 
to get along without the level, but try the level every 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS. 251 

day it is to be used, and see that it is correct. The old- 
fashioned level boards are not fit to surface curved 
track with. A good track level is one made of wood, 
i-J inches thick by 3 inches wide, bound with iron 
strap at one end, and the other end having an iron or 
brass cap fitted over it and an iron standard 5 or more 
inches long through it ; standards to be used one-half 
inch square and graduated to one-eighth inch. Stand- 
ard should slide easily either way, and have a set 
screw to hold it at any desired place. The end which 
has the standards in will, of course, be the heaviest, so 
the handle should not be in the center, but should be 
placed so the level will balance when picked up. 

19. Track Wrenches. — Each section should have as 
many track wrenches as there are men in the gang. It 
takes a little practice to use a wrench quickly and 
handily ; have the nuts tightened good, and then hit 
them a blow with the hammer and tighten them again. 
Where nutlocks are used nuts will not need to be as 
tight as where there are none. Wrenches should be 
made of one piece of steel, and have four sides to the 
jaws, so as to fit square or hexagonal nuts. 

Monkey Wrenches. — One should go with every 
handcar, and don't use it for a hammer; keep it in good 
working order to tighten nuts with. 

MINOR TOOLS. 

20. Curving Hooks. — These need but very little 
care, but a lot of care needs to be taken when using 
them for curving rails. When curving rails above 
three or four degrees use a string and curve them to 
ordinates, so when using the curving hook in conjunc- 
tion with lever and sledge exercise a little care or we 
will make ourselves lots of extra work. 

Drawing Knives — Are very handy for putting in 



252 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

new handles and are often handy when making repairs 
around tool houses or other buildings. They need to 
be kept very sharp and should have a special place in 
the tool house. 

Grindstones. — This is a most necessary tool and 
when using it it should be turned steadily and tools 
held square to avoid wearing the face of stone uneven. 

Hatchets. — One should always be kept on hand car, 
and when grinding other tools it should not be for- 
gotten. 

Straightening Iron or "Jim Crow," as we usually 
call it. — Almost. every section has more or less kinky 
rails, and with this tool we can straighten the joints 
where they are crowded out too much. First, pull 
the spikes and plug the holes where the kinks occur, 
then use the straightener and the track will present a 
much better appearance. The "jim crow" is also very 
handy when we have rails to cut. Mark the rail all 
around with chisel and then put on the "jim crow" 
and break it. It saves lots of cutting. 

Rakes are handy to clean up straw and rubbish 
around depots, warehouses and other buildings. 

Ratchet Bits. — When drilling holes the bit should 
not be crowded too hard, as they are generally highly 
tempered and are liable to break at the point. See that 
the bit is in the ratchet straight and fits snug. 

Ratchet Drills. — Keep them as free from grit and 
dirt as possible. When placing them for drilling a hole, 
be sure to set them straight, so there will be no crooked 
or misplaced hole. 

Striking Hammer. — Every section should have one 
of these. Twelve pounds is about the right weight, 
and the handle should be a little shorter than for 
a spike hammer. Always use the striking hammer for 



USB AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS. 253 

striking the chisel; a spike hammer should never be 
used for this. 

Sight Boards and Spike Pullers. — Every foreman 
should have some kind of sight boards or blocks to use 
when taking out long sags. Another tool which is very 
handy is a short spike puller for pulling spikes where 
the claw bar cannot be used. In lieu of something bet- 
ter, a short pinch bar, such as engineers or car repair- 
ers use with their jacks, can be used to advantage. 
Bend them a little more at the heel and they will start 
spikes fairly well. However, the spike pullers offered 
by manufacturers are far better and handier. 

Oil for Wooden Handles. — All wooden tool handles 
should be well oiled before being used ; it prevents sea- 
son checking to a great extent, and they wear smoother. 

IMPORTANCE OF HAVING TOOLS READY FOR USE. 

21. One of the most important things in railway ser- 
vice is time. Time represents so much capital invested 
by the company, and to make this investment pay divi- 
dends you must know how to use and care for the tools 
you use. Make an every-day practice of handling tools 
to best advantage, so that in case of emergency you 
may be prepared for anything that turns up. Think 
for a moment of the loss and inconvenience that is 
caused if one of the main lines of one of our great rail- 
way systems is blockaded for a few hours. In case of 
a wreck or washout, or any other accident that may 
happen to a railroad, and a big force is called out to 
repair it; then it is that you can make yourselves of 
valuable service by knowing how, when and where to 
use your tools, and have them distributed so that you 
dt> not have too many at one thing and too few at an- 
other; but have everything arranged so that the most 
work may be accomplished in the least possible time. 



254 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

And if you do not make a practice of working sys- 
tematically you will not be prepared to do so in an 
emergency. A proper handling of tools means a 
proper handling of men. 



CHAPTER XX.— TIE PLATES. 

PAST THE EXPERIMENTAL STAGE. 

i. In the United States, Canada and Mexico tie 
plates are now being used as a standard on most of the 
largest and most important railroads, after practical 
trackmen had experimented with them for a number 
of years and found that there were great benefits re- 
sulting from their use. The main advantages of prop- 
erly constructed tie plates are summarized as follows: 
SAVE IN TIE RENEWALS. 

2. It has been found that when the ordinary soft 
wood ties, such as white pine, cedar, red wood, chest- 
nut, tamarack, and cypress are placed in track where 
traffic is heavy, the fiber of the wood will be crushed, 
abraded and destroyed by the wave motion of rail, long 
before they would have to be removed on account of 
natural decay, as described in Chapter IX. 

The natural life of the soft woods, when used as ties, 
averages twelve years; but they have been known to 
be destroyed in six months under peculiarly severe con- 
ditions, and under ordinary conditions within a period 
of from two to four years. Hence the railroads of 
America have not used soft wood ties, except under the 
lightest traffic, until the tie plate came and proved its 
tie-preserving qualities. Since then it has been dem- 
onstrated through practical experience that by the use 
of a properly constructed tie plate the use of these soft 
ties may be extended to their full natural life of twelve 



256 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



years, and that, when they are subjected to a wood pre- 
servative and placed in track with tie plates, they will 
last twenty years. From this it will be seen that tie 
renewals on roads using 1 tie plates on soft ties will not 
be more than one-half or one-third of the requirements 
where no tie plates are used. 

The density and compactness of the wood in oak 
and yellow pine ties is sufficient to withstand the de- 
structive action of the rail on straight track for a period 
often equal to their natural life, which averages eight 
years. On curves, over three degrees, it has been found 
necessary to use tie plates to preserve the hard wood 
ties to the limit of their natural life. 

AVOID ADZING IN MAINTENANCE, 

3. The load upon the rail due to the wheels traveling 
over it is both vertical and lateral (Fig. 55), according 

to the surface 

of the track, 

making the 

strain greatest 

on its outer 

edge, and caus- 
ing the outer 

rail flange to 
cut down into the fiber of the wood more quickly than 
on the inner (Fig. 56). 

When the rail assumes this canted position the 
gauge is widened; this increases the lateral sway of 
trains which requires that track men draw the spikes, 
adze the tie beneath the rail to a level surface and then 
respike. This adzing requires the tie to be tamped and 
raised an amount equal to the depth of adzing, all of 
which could have been saved by the use of a tie plate, 




FIG. 55. 




TIE PLATES. 257 

MAINTAINS TRACK IN SURFACE. 

4. Where no plates are used the old ties must be 
adzed several years before they are to be taken out of 
the track to maintain the rail level, and when so adzed 
they must be raised to restore the surface, hence the 
roadbed beneath them is destroyed and requires filling 
in and tamping under the adzed ties which leaves such 
portions of the roadbed soft and yielding, while other 
parts are thoroughly compact and rigid; the result is a 
bad riding track. 

If all ties are protected with tie plates these condi- 
tions will not occur, the tie plate entirely preventing the 
cutting of the tie, and consequently the necessity for 
adzing and retamping, leaving the roadbed uniform, 
and making a smooth riding track. Thus a great sav- 
ing in track labor is accomplished. 

MAINTAIN GAGE. 

5. By referring to Fig. 55 it will be seen that the lat- 
eral force tending to throw the rail to a wider gauge, is 
resisted by the outer spike only, marked "Y," which in 
its turn is supported by the fiber of the wood back of it; 
but that when a tie plate is used the widening of gauge 
can only then take place if both spikes Y and X together 
with the plate move laterally, which is impossible. 
Hence we have the full resistance of both spikes, plus 
that offered by the plate itself, to prevent widening of 
gauge, giving an increased safety in operation. 

HOLDS RAIL VERTICAL. 

6. Referring to Fig. 57, it is seen that of the two 
forces acting on the head of the rail, the vertical one is 
by far the greater of the two. 

With the use of rail braces these two forces are 
transmitted to the tie as follows : The small lateral force 



258 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 




is transmitted directly to the rail brace and through it 

and the spikes holding it to the ties, but the much 

greater vertical force is transmitted to the tie directly 

at a point near the edge of the outer rail flange, and 

this force the rail brace is not designed to and does not 

resist, with the result that 

the tie is cut out and the 

rail brace is canted as in 

Fig. 58. By the use of the 

tie plate the much greater 

II vertical force is resisted by 
1/ J 

4 the plate and is distributed 
FIG - 57- over the tie. The much 

smaller lateral force is resisted by the inner and one or 
two of the outer spikes, according to the necessity of 
the case. This fact has become so well established that 
after a trial of tie plates most railroads in the United 
States having the sharpest curves and heaviest grades 
have abandoned the use 
of rail braces and adopt- 
ed tie plates in their 
stead. This is notable in 
the case of the Norfolk 
& Western, Baltimore 
& Ohio, Denver & Rio 
Grande, and other roads.- 

The use of the tie plate on curves insures a normal po- 
sition of the rail, prevents the rail from rolling, which, 
in turn, insures a true gauge. 

A properly constructed tie plate increases the life 
of the tie and thus decreases the cost of tie renewals; it 
maintains good track and thus makes a large saving in 
the labor of track maintenance. 




TIE PLATES. 259 

NECESSARY FEATURES OF A GOOD TIE PLATE. 

7. A good tie plate must become part of the tie into 
which it is bedded, in order to avoid any movement be- 
tween plate and tie. This is accomplished by longitudi- 
nal flanges on the plate entering the tie parallel with its 
fibers, and compressing them without injuring them; 
the reactionary pressure of the fibers upon the flanges 
of the plate makes the latter practically a part of the tie. 
A well-known illustration of this fact is that when 
an ax is driven in a piece of timber parallel with the 
grain of the wood, it remains firmly wedged in, while if 
cut across the grain it has no grip at all, and is easily 
worked loose. 

A good tie plate must have sufficient strength to dis- 
tribute the load from the rail to the outer ends of the 
plate without bending, for if this 
is not the case the plate buckles, 
as shown in Fig. 59, loosens from 
the tie and destroys the fibre of 
the tie rapidly. A point to be 
guarded against is the using of 
too much metal in the plate; if 
this occurs it will work itself loose from the tie by its 
own inertia and destroy the wood fibres. The flanges 
act as girders and distribute the load on the rail to the 
extreme end of the plate in a much more economical 
manner than if the plate is increased in thickness. 

There must also be provision made for sand to es- 
cape from the top of tie plate; otherwise the grit get- 
ting between rail and plate, will gradually destroy both 
rail and plate; but with the proper means of escape, 
such as channels or ducts, it has been found by experi- 
ence that it has but little effect upon the plate. 




260 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



THE PLATE THAT FILLS ALL THE REQUIREMENTS. 

8. The Q. & W. Tie Plate is the latest development 
of the tie plate in the United States, and is a combina- 
tion of the Servis and Wolhaupter patents uniting the 
most valuable features of both into one. The flanges 
of the Q. & W. enter the tie parallel with the grain at 
right angles with the rail. The upper portion of the 
corrugation between the flanges is of arch construction 
on top. The corrugations are flattened somewhat to 
give a surface support for the rail base. 




FIG. 60. 

This plate fulfills all the requirements of a good tie 
plate, as having the flanges parallel with the grain of the 
wood they readily separate the fibers and imbed them- 
selves in the wood, thus becoming a part of the tie. 

The plate being corrugated, it has the same relative 
strength to a flat top plate as a corrugated piece of sheet 
metal has to an ordinary plain piece. In addition to 
these corrugations it has the flanges below, which act as 
girders to distribute the load on the rail to its outer 
ends. The channels or grooves on top allow the es- 
cape of sand, as mentioned in paragraph 7, and this 
feature is very important. 

Being corrugated it may be very much lighter and 
have an equal strength with a plain plate, and thus have 
a small amount of inertia to work loose. Another fac- 



TIE PLATES. 261 

tor commending the Q. & W. plate is that it has 40 
per cent, of its total weight on the top wearing sur- 
face. When the top of this plate is worn half through 
only 20 per cent, of the metal is removed, and its 
strength remains substantially as before. 



CHAPTER XXL— WRECKING. 

i. The first duty of a track foreman when he re- 
ceives a notice that there has been an accident, and he 
is wanted there, is to collect his men and take his hand 
car, and all his portable tools, even those which, he 
thinks he is not likely to use. He should not go short 
of tools expecting - that the other foreman there will 
have enough. The other foreman may think the same, 
and valuable time will be lost by the want of fore- 
thought of both. 

ON THE GROUND. 

2. When a track foreman arrives at the scene of ac- 
cident, he should proceed immediately to do whatever 
work, in his judgment, would contribute most to put- 
ting the track in a passable condition for other trains, 
notwithstanding the absence of his superior officer, 
who may not be able to reach the wreck for several 
hours. If the track is torn up, and the cars do not in- 
terfere, put in ties enough to carry a train safely over 
where you can. If the rails are bent out of shape secure 
some from near by, if it is possible. If this cannot be 
done, get as many as possible of the damaged rails to 
their proper shape, and spike down in the track. 

If a small bridge or culvert has given away, crib it 
with ties until you can cross it with track. 

If you cannot procure ties along your section, and 



WRECKING. 263 

many are not needed, remove a part of the ties from 
the track where it is full tied, and where it will leave 
a sufficient number in the track to make it safe for 
the passage of trains. 

In the same manner, if you are short of bolts and 
spikes and too much time would be lost by going after 
them, borrow some from track where they can be 
spared and fix track to let trains pass. 

TO SQUARE A CAR TRUCK. 

3. If one or both trucks beneath a car should leave 
the track at once and turn across it, as is often the 
case, uncouple from the car and hitch a switch rope to 
the corner of the truck and to the draw head of the car 
next to the one which is off the track. Then pull the 
truck into a position parallel to the track, after which 
it can be put on the rails with the wrecking frogs. 

If the car should be loaded very heavily, it might 
be advisable to raise the end with jacks before squaring 
the truck. If the right man undertakes this job, the 
train need not be delayed over thirty minutes. 

WHEN A CENTER PIN CANNOT BE USED. 

4. Sometimes when a car leaves the track, the cen- 
ter pin breaks, or is so badly bent that it cannot be used 
again. This often happens on the road when there is 
nothing at hand to remove the crooked pin. In such 
a case, if the car is empty, or not heavily loaded, it is 
best to roll the truck from beneath the car off the track, 
and haul the car into the station carefully supported 
on that end by the regular coupling pin and link. 

When the ends of a broken center pin do not pro- 
ject, the end of a car can be jacked up, the truck placed 
in position, and the end of the car again allowed to 
rest in its place on the truck, after which, if watched 
carefully, the car can be hauled a long distance. 



264 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

WITHOUT AN ENGINE. 

5. It often happens that car gets off the track in 
such a place that it is impossible to get the help of an 
engine to pull it on again without considerable delay. 
When a case of this kind occurs, and there are other 
cars on the track near by, take the car nearest to the 
one off the track, and couple the two together with a 
chain, or a rope long enough to give plenty of slack. 
Then get together what men are available, and push 
the car which is on the track close to the wrecked car. 
When you are ready to pull the wrecked car upon the 
track, start the car which is coupled to it away from it 
as fast as the men can push it. The jerk, when the 
slack of the line is taken up, will pull the car on the 
track as well as an engine can do it. If you have men 
enough, use for the motive power two or more cars, 
if necessary. This is what is called "slacking a car 
onto track." 

CARS OFF ON TIES. 

6. When cars have got off the track, and are still 
on the ties, it is best to put blocks or ties between those 
in the track to keep the wheels from sinking between 
the ties. By doing this at once, before attempting to 
put the cars back on the track, will generally save con- 
siderable time and labor. 

OIL THE RAIL. 

7. If an engine or car mounts the outside rail of a 
sharp curve, and persists in running off the track, oil 
the rails thoroughly where the most trouble is experi- 
enced. This will generally allow the engine or car to 
go around the curve without leaving the track. 

Very rusty rails on a curve track, which has not 
been used for some time, often cause the wheels to 



WRECKING. 265 

mount the outside rail of a curve, the surface not being 
smooth enough to allow the wheels to slide. 
BROKEN SWITCHES. 

8. If at any time you find the connecting rod of a 
stub switch broken, or you want to use the switch and 
have no switch stand, slip a car link between the ends 
of the lead rails, allowing enough of it to project to 
hold the ends of the moving rails in place, or take a 
piece of plank of the right shape, and use it in the same 
way as the link. This is better. 

CAR TRUCKS IN THE DITCH. 

9. When the car trucks are thrown some distance 
from the track in a wreck, the quickest method of put- 
ting them on the track again, if you have no derrick 
car, is to take bars and turn them almost parallel to the 
track, but with one end a little nearer to the track. 
Hitch a rope to this end of the truck, and to the engine, 
or the nearest car which is coupled to the engine, and 
the truck will pull onto the track easily, if there is noth- 
ing to obstruct its passage. 

TO CONNECT BROKEN CHAINS. 

10. A link made of iron or steel, and fashioned 
^ __ -^ after the pattern shown in Fig. 

^^ == ^\ 61, is very handy to have when 
, I ) at a wreck, pulling cars or en- 
gines with a chain. If a chain 
breaks the two broken ends 
can be brought together, and fixed in this link as if 
held with a grab hook. 

TO TURN A CAR TRUCK ON SOFT GROUND. 

11. When car trucks are sunk in soft ground at a 
wreck, and there is no derrick car or other lifting ap- 
paratus at hand, a good way to handle them is to place 



(C 



266 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

a tie cross way in the ground, about four or five feet 
from the truck, then place two more long ties or tim- 
bers, with their centers resting across the first tie, and 
their ends in front of the truck wheels. The truck can 
then be pushed up on top of the long ties as if on a 
track. When it is centered over the bottom tie, the 
truck can be easily turned to run in an)' direction. 
TO PUT A WRECKED GRAVEL PLOW BACK ON CARS 

12. Trackmen in charge of a ballasting outfit if they 
are new at the business, are often at a loss to know the 
quickest way to put a plow back on the cars, if it should 
accidentally be pulled off on the ground. The best way 
to do in such a case is to roll the plow or pull it with 
the engine and cable into the same position on the 
track that it would occupy on the cars ; then raise up 
the snout of the plow until you can back the end of a 
car under it, hook the end of the cable to the plow, 
block the car wheels and pull the plow on to the car 
with the engine. 

SLIDING A CAR ON A TIE. 

13. If the hind truck of any kind of a car should by 
accident be derailed, broken, or rendered useless, the 
car could be taken to the next station by uncoupling 
it from the cars behind it. Remove the disabled truck 
from the track ; then take the caboose jacks and raise 
the body of the car enough to slip a tie under it across 
the track rails ; let the car down upon the tie, and by 
running carefully the car can be hauled to the station 
or side track, sliding on the tie. 

If sliding the disabled car on a tie is not practical, 
it is often a good way to block up both ends of the car 
on ties and move the forward truck under the other 
end of car and haul it to station with one end resting 
on the coupling; or put another truck under the for- 



WRECKING. 267 

ward end, that being the most convenient way in some 
cases. 

LOADED WRECKED CARS. 

14. It is always best, when a wrecked car is loaded, 
to remove the load, or transfer it to another car on the 
good track. Outfits starting to go to a wreck should 
provide themselves with all tools and appliances neces- 
sary for this purpose. 

BROKEN CENTER PINS. 

15. Car-truck center pins, which have been twisted 
or broken in a wreck, may be removed by going inside 
the car. and cutting away with a hammer and cold 
chisel the iron ring which forms the head and shoulder 
of the pin. The pin may then be driven down through 
the bottom of the car. 

There should always be a man on hand at a wreck 
to look after such jobs, and promptly remove all broken 
brake-beams, hanging irons, etc., so as not to delay 
the work after the cars are picked up, or ready to be put 
upon the track. 

PULLING ON A CHAIN OR ROPE. 

16. When pulling on a chain or rope with a loco- 
motive at a wreck, care should be taken not to have 
too much slack, as chains break easily. The same is 
true of switch ropes, but when they are new or not 
much worn, they will stand a greater slack strain than 
a chain will. Wire cables are preferable to either a 
chain or a rope, for pulling, and they will stand a 
much greater slack strain, if not allowed to become 
twisted out of shape. 

There is always danger of chains or switch ropes 
breaking when engines are pulling on them at a wreck, 
and those working near should not be allowed to stand 
too close to them. 



268 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

A DEAD MAN." 

17. What is generally termed "a dead man" is a 
device sometimes used to anchor a guy or stay rope, 
where wrecking cars, engines or derricks have to do 
very heavy hoisting or pulling. It is made by digging 
a trench five or six feet deep, at a proper distance from 
the track and parallel to it. A narrow cross trench is 
then dug, slanting upward from the bottom and middle 
of the first trench, to the surface of the ground. A 
good track tie or .heavy timber is then buried in the 
first trench, and the rope is passed down through the 
cross trench and secured to the timber. 

WRECKED ENGINES. 

18. The first thing to do with a wrecked engine, 
if the frame is good, is to take jacks and put the engine 
in an upright position, such as it would occupy if 
standing on the main track. It may then be blocked 
up and raised sufficiently to place under it rails and ties, 
forming a temporary track. The main track should 
then be cut at a rail joint, and lined out in an easy 
curve until the ends of the rails are in line with the 
temporary track. The tracks should then be connected 
and the engine pulled upon the main track. If the 
engine stands at such an angle as to require a very 
sharp curve in the track over which it is pulled, put 
plenty of oil on the track rails, and elevate the outside 
rail of the curve. 

If the engine is only off the rails, and still on the 
track ties, additional rails may be spiked down to the 
ties in front of the wheels like a switch lead, and con- 
nected with a pair of the track rails. The engine may 
be pulled on again over this lead and the main track 
closed. This method is quicker and better, for putting 



WRECKING. 269 

a derailed engine on the track when more than one 
truck is off the rails, than using frogs or blocking. 
HOW TO WORK AT A WRECK. 

19. The first thing to do at any wreck of import- 
ance, where cars block the main track, is to use the 
first locomotive which can be put into service, and 
with switch ropes pull clear of the tracks all cars, 
trucks, or other wreckage which cannot be readily put 
back on the track with the facilities at hand for doing 
such work. Proper care should be taken, in doing this 
part of the work, not to injure freight in the cars. 
When necessary, remove it from the wrecked cars to a 
place of safety, and pull the cars and trucks into a posi- 
tion alongside the track, where it will be handy for 
the wrecking car to pick them up after it arrives. 

The moment the track is clear of wreckage, the 
track force should go to work and repair it, and quickly 
put it in good condition for trains. 

Track foremen should not allow their men to be- 
come confused or mixed up with other gangs of men 
which are present at a wreck, except when it is neces- 
sary for more than one gang of men to work together ; 
even then the foreman should keep his own men as 
much together as possible, so as to always be able to 
control their actions and work them to the best ad- 
vantage. 

No matter what part of the work at a wreck a fore- 
man is called upon to do, he should act promptly, and 
work with a will to get the wreck cleared up, and the 
track ready for the passage of trains with as little delay 
as possible. 



CHAPTER XXII.— GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 

BOARDING ACCOMMODATIONS. 

i. Track foremen should always see about securing 
boarding- accommodations for the men working under 
them. Do not make a favorite of any particular house 
in town, but select the hotel which will give the best 
accommodations and the cheapest. 

The wages of track laborers as a general rule are 
low, and very few of these men can pay their board 
in advance. For this reason the foremen should see 
that board bills presented by hotel keepers against 
any of their men are properly signed, corrected and 
sent into headquarters promptly at the end of every 
working month, and when a man is discharged, if he 
is in debt for board, the amount of his bill should be 
sent in with his check to the superintendent to be 
deducted therefrom. By paying particular attention 
to the foregoing instructions, track foremen will always 
be able to more readily secure men when wanted. 
The hotel men will not refuse to keep them, and you 
will save yourself and the officers of the company a 
great deal of annoyance and useless correspondence. 
Never keep at work a dead beat or an habitual drunk- 
ard, and you will materially assist in bettering the 
condition and reputation of men employed in the 
track service. 

DISCHARGES. 

2. Upon the day on which a man is discharged the 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 271 

foreman should make out his time in full on the time 
book, and write opposite his name on the time book, 
"discharged," or the letters C. G., which means certifi- 
cate of time given. 

The foreman should always fill out a discharge 
check, using the regular blank form for that purpose. 
The man's name should be written in full on the dis- 
charge check and spelled in the same way as on the 
time book. His occupation, number of days worked, 
and amount due him should also correspond with the 
same on the time book. The discharge check should 
be signed by the foreman and forwarded to the road- 
master for approval. A board bill should also accom- 
pany the discharge check whenever there is any de- 
duction to be made from a man's wages for that pur- 
pose. 

Foremen should not discharge any of their men 
without sufficient cause, except when they have re- 
ceived an order to reduce their force; nor should a 
foreman keep any more men than the regular force 
allowed him without orders from the roadmaster. 
RIDE OVER YOUR SECTION ON THE ENGINE. 

3. Section foremen should take an occasional ride 
over their section either on the engine or on the back 
platform of the rear coach or caboose of a train; and 
while riding over the track they should not make a 
pleasure trip of it, merely, but should watch closely 
how the cars ride, and note all the worst places in their 
sections, and note what causes these places to affect 
the smooth running of the train. A train running 
at the speed of 45 miles per hour does not ride as 
smoothly as a train which only travels 20 miles per 
hour on the same track, because the cars which travel 
the slowest have more time to get righted after the 



272 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

wheels meet with a place out of line, level, gauge or 
surface, while the fast trains may meet with, and pass 
several of these slight obstructions within a second 
of time, thus having no time to regain its balance. 
When a train runs along smoothly for a distance and 
suddenly swings to one side, if it be on a straight track, 
that place is either low on that side, or is badly out 
of line or gauge. If the train be on a curve, and the 
car swings heavily toward the higher rail, there is not 
enough elevation in the curve at that point. If the 
car swings toward the inside rail of the curve, there 
is too much elevation at the outer rail at that place. 
A low joint on the inside rail will cause the train to 
swing to that side, and the striking of the wheel flange 
against joints that are hooked in out of line on the 
outer rail will also throw the car toward the inner rail. 
A foreman can soon become expert in distinguishing 
the slight difference in the motion of the car as it 
swings to either side of the track, and tell the cause by 
examining the bad places in the track soon after riding 
over it on the train. 

• FOLLOWING TRAINS. 

4. Track foremen should not, at any time, secure 
their hand or push cars behind a moving train to save 
the labor of pumping or pushing them. Many serious 
accidents have happened from this cause. If a train 
should slacken speed, or suddenly stop, with a hand car 
attached, it would be hard to prevent the car from 
going under the coach or caboose, and the men on 
the car might be injured or killed. 

ACCIDENTS. 

5. All personal injuries to men working in track 
service should be reported on the proper blank form 
by the foreman to the roadmaster, and all accidents 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 273 

resulting in damage to the railroad company's prop- 
erty should also be promptly reported to the road- 
master. When there are no suitable blank forms a 
written report should be made, and it should be signed 
by witnesses. 

GO OYER THE TRACK. 

6. Section foremen should always, in very stormy 
weather, go over their sections and examine all cul- 
verts, bridges and other places liable to wash, and 
report condition of track to roadmaster. In going 
over their section, track foremen should be very 
thorough in their examination of everything in their 
charge. See that the telegraph lines are in good order; 
if they are not, repair them when you can, and report 
to train dispatcher or roadmaster any defects that may 
need the service of the telegraph line repairer. 

Foremen should also notice the condition of all 
snow or right of way fences, especially the latter, and 
repair all breaks in them as soon as found. Gates left 
open by farmers should be closed and secured. Un- 
reliable men, or those ignorant of their duties, should 
never be detailed to patrol the track. 

RAISE UP THE WIRES. 

7. When telegraph wires are found down after a 
storm, section foremen should hang them high enough 
on the poles to insure their working properly, and 
prevent cattle or teams crossing the track from running 
against them. 

EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE. 

8. Whenever the temperature changes suddenly 
there is always danger whether the changes be to 
extreme heat or extreme cold. Section foremen should 
be very particular to go over and examine all the track 



274 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

on their sections to discover places where track has 
been kinked and thrown out of line by the heat, or 
splices broken and rails pulled apart by the extreme 
cold. Foremen should remember that accidents of the 
kind mentioned are liable to happen at any point on 
the road, even where the rails seem to have the proper 
allowance for expansion, because the change of tem- 
perature may come on quickly. Places where the 
ballast is light, or where the track is not filled in be- 
tween the ties, are the most liable to be affected. 
TRACK JACKS. 

9. Every section foreman should have a track jack 
along with his other track tools, and he should always 
carry it with him on the hand car, and have it ready to 
use whenever it is necessary to raise track. 

There are few things that look more ridiculous than 
three or four men making futile efforts to raise a rail 
of track, with a long bar or track lever, and a block 
of wood which is either too high or too low. The 
ingenuity or ignorance of the whole gang is displayed 
a score of times during the day, whenever the block 
will not do to raise the track to the proper 'height, and 
valuable time is lost in trying to find a stone, a chunk 
of wood or a spike to increase the leverage, and which 
is seldom or never thought of until the moment it is 
wanted. Sometimes the spikes are pulled out of one 
or two ties in every rail length, and the track is raised 
from the top of the ties. This way also causes a consid- 
erable loss of time, pulling the spikes and respiking the 
ties, besides the injury done the ties, when the old spike 
holes are left open to rot the wood. Raising track 
with a lever, pulls the rails out of line much more than 
raising it with a jack, and makes it more difficult to 
get back to place, often loosening the spikes where 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 275 

the ballast i9 heavy, and the track is laid with soft ties. 

A good track jack is one of the best and most eco- 
nomical tools that can be used on a railroad. 

In order to avoid accidents when track is being 
raised, the track jack should be set on the outside of 
the rai'.s. In this position the pilot of an engine, if 
it should strike the jack, will knock it clear from the 
rails. But there is no necessity of using a track jack 
immediately ahead of the passage of trains, or when 
they are due at that point, and the men can be em- 
ployed at other work for the time. A track jack placed 
inside the rails which could not be removed in time, 
caused the derailment of a passenger train on the Old 
Colony Railroad and ten persons were killed. Always 
properly protect yourself with flags when using a jack. 
THE SPIRIT LEVEL. 

io. Foremen should never go out on their sections 
to surface it without taking the spirit level with them. 
It should be used continually, especially on track which 
was never ballasted, or which was surfaced hurriedly 
without using a level. Never listen to ignorant or 
conceited track foremen, who will tell you that they 
can put up as good track without using the track level. 
It is impossible. If you have surfaced a piece of track 
to a perfect level, then you can sight the depressions 
in the surface without using the spirit level, when 
going over it a second time, if the track has not become 
rough. 

It is the rule more than the exception, that where 
a track is newly laid and ballasted with dirt, the sur- 
facing is poorly done, and the spirit level seldom or 
never used. 

Section foremen in charge of new track laid on dirt, 
should make it their business to improve the line and 



276 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

surface as fast as possible with the force allowed them, 
before the track settles, or the dirt becomes a solid 
mass. While the ties and rails are new is the time to 
make a good track. 

SURFACE BENT RAILS. 

ii. In wet cuts, or other low places, the track often 
becomes very rough, and the ties sink into the mud 
in places. The rails then, if of light weight, become 
more or less surface bent before the track can be raised 
up, or repaired properly. If the surface bent, rails 
cannot be replaced by good rails before the track is 
ballasted up they are apt to cause the section foreman 
much trouble in trying to make them remain in true 
surface, if he does not understand how to straighten 
them. This can best be done by the following method: 
If, for instance, a rail bows up at the quarter or the 
center, make the ties solid at each end of the bent place 
some warm day, then remove enough material from 
under the ties, where the rail is bent, so that the weight 
of an engine passing over the rail will bend the bowed 
place, just as much below level, as it is then above. 
After a train goes over you will generally find the rail 
has resumed its proper shape all right. If the bend 
in the rail is downward, hang the center of the bent 
place upon one or more solid ties, according to the 
length of the bend, and allow the balance of the track 
under the rail to remain as it was. Joints which have 
been allowed to remain low for some time, often cause 
the rail to become surface bent in the short quarter, 
and they are very difficult to keep up ever after, unless 
the kink is taken out of the rail. 

A loose joint tie, in gravel or sand ballast, will soon 
pump out enough gravel to cause the rail to bend a 
short distance from the end, unless it is noticed by 



GENERAL INSTRUCTION®. Sf7 

the track foreman, and taken care of at once. When 
the track foreman wishes to straighten any surface 
bent rails, he should always signal the first train, and 
have it run slowly, because there is danger of the 
rails breaking where they are not fully supported. 
Surface bent rails, which are so bad that they cannot 
be straightened while in the track, may be taken out 
and fixed with the curving hook and lever. 
LOW JOINTS. 

12. When picking up low joints in gravel or stone 
ballasted track, particularly where the depressions are 
only slight, if sufficient force is allowed, track foremen 
should always use tamping bars, or tamping picks, 
according to the nature of the ballast, to tamp up the 
track ties to the proper surface level. 

There are many things other than a weak founda- 
tion which make low joints in track. Loose bolts in 
the joint fastenings make low joints, because they 
allow the joints to bend down under the weight of the 
engine and cars. Bad gauge and line make low joints, 
because the cars, when trains run fast, are thrown 
heavily from one side of the track to the opposite, 
and the joint being the weakest point is liable to be 
affected the most. A wide space between the ends 
of the track rail also make low joints, and assists the 
car wheels to batter the ends of the rails. 

When rails are laid on soft wood ties, or when the 
ties have commenced to decay, you will generally find 
that a low joint is wide in the gauge between the rails. 
Make low joints a scarce article on your section of 
track, and you will quickly have a good track, and a 
good reputation as a track foreman. 

The conviction gains ground daily that low joints 




278 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

are due in a great measure to the faulty construction of 

the ordinary angle bar joints, and this theory is borne out 

by the fact that roads 

using improved Joint 

Fastenings have very 

little trouble in this 

respect. There are 

numerous devices on 

the market now 

which have some 

merit as an improvement, but the general opinion 

among trackmen is that the Continuous Rail Joint and 

the Weber Joint* are the most efficient. 

We show in Fig. 62 the Continuous Joint. As will 
be seen the two angle plates give a continuous support 
to the flanges of both rails, thus making it impossible 
for either rail end to dip, while perfect alignment is se- 
cured by the vertical flanges of the angles. 

The Weber Rail Joint is in use on a great many of 
the American roads. The principles involved are that 
the base plate prevents the ends of the rails from dip- 
ping, the upright leg insures great strength of the joint, 
and the wood fillers absorb the vibrations of the rail, 
and also act as a nut lock for the bolts. 

The use of either of these two named Joint Fasten- 
ings will save a large amount of labor annually in the 
operation by keeping rail joints to a true surface. 
EXAMINING TRACK. 

13. When the track rails on a section become badly 
worn, and need to be repaired often, or when the 
ground is frozen solid in winter, section foremen 
should go over their sections daily, and examine the 



♦See page 314 for description and illustration of the 
[Weber Insulated Joint. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 279 

track thoroughly for broken or cracked rails, removing 
from track such rails, and replacing with good ones. 

It is the duty of foremen never to deviate from 
this rule unless a regular track walker is employed 
for this purpose, or when they have orders from the 
roadmaster to the contrary. 

The section foreman is responsible for the condi- 
tion of the track in his charge, and he should do 
everything in his power to contribute to the safety of 
passengers and trains passing over it. Report all 
broken rails to the roadmaster as soon as found, giving 
brand, weight, age, etc. 

SCARCITY OF REPAIR RAILS. 

14. When repair rails are scarce, and a foreman 
cannot procure enough to exchange for damaged rails 
in his main track, he can with only a couple of extra 
rails keep his track perfectly safe by commencing in 
time to bring into station the worst rails on the main 
track. 

Take the extra rails out on the section, if good and 
of the proper length, exchange them for two battered 
rails, bring the two battered rails into the station and 
put them in the yard, or in track some place near the 
station, and get two more good rails. These you take 
out on section as before, and exchange for battered 
rails. In this way a foreman may exchange four or 
five carloads of rails, or about one mile of steel, until 
he receives a supply of repair rails. 

Battered rails are safer within one-half mile of a 
station at the track foreman's headquarters, than out 
on his section, because trains run slower there. Bat- 
tered rails are less liable to break near the station. 
They are also much easier watched, and taken care of. 



280 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

When repair rails are received the battered rails can 
all be removed at once. 

CHANGING BATTERED RAILS. 

15. The best method for changing rails which have 
become unfit for use in the main track, when the rails 
furnished for repair are of a different length from those 
in the main track, is as follows : 

Put in track near the station a string of repair rails, 
and take out rails of a proper length to change the 
battered ones out on the section. In order to do this 
right, and save unnecessary expense and labor, always 
try to have the number cf repair rails you put in track 
replace a greater or less number of rails of a different 
length without any cutting. If you have not the right 
number of rails without cutting one use a number of 
rails that will give the least waste. 

EXAMPLE. 

15 26-foot rails equal 390 feet. 

13 30-foot rails equal390 feet. 

OR 

7 30-foot rails equal 210 feet. 

8 26-foot rails equal 208 feet. 

As will be seen in the above example, there are only 
two feet to be cut from the last 30-foot rail of the 7 to 
replace 8 26-foot rails, and for this waste a foreman 
should select (if he has it) a rail battered on the end, 
that will give the required 28 feet of good rail. 
EXTRA WORK. 

16. It is customary on most railroads to call upon 
the trackmen to do extra work occasionally, such as 
assisting the telegraph line repairer, the bridge car- 
penters, pump repairers, etc., whenever these gangs 
cannot well perform the work alone, or when a suffi- 



GENERAL INSTRUCTION'S. 281 

cient force of men canot be procured to do the neces- 
sary work. 

Track foremen should not assist with their men 
at any kind of extra work without orders from the 
roadmaster. When such orders are received the track 
foreman should only give the amount of help required, 
using all of his men or only part, as is necessary. 
Never employ all of your force when a less number 
of men could do the work as well, unless your orders 
require it. Charge accurately on the work journal, and 
to the department to which it belongs, all extra work 
performed by your men during the month. Whenever 
you do any extra work, for which there is no printed 
heading on the work journal, put down the time in 
some column which you are likely not to have any 
occasion to use for the work specified in it, and state, in 
writing in the same column where you put the time, 
what the labor was. 

TRAIN ACCIDENTS. 

17. In case of an accident to a train, the section 
foreman who is called should take his men and tools 
and go to the place, no matter whether it is on his 
section or not, and give all the assistance possible. 
Foremen should obey the conductor of the train, and 
work under his instructions until the arrival of the 
roadmaster, or until they receive other orders. Section 
foremen should not wait for orders from their road- 
master to do any extra work which they know to be 
absolutely necessary, but should do the work at once, 
and remain out with their men until everything is safe. 
If a foreman is notified by trainmen or others of some- 
thing wrong on a section adjoining his own, such as 
a broken rail, a fire along the right of way, or the 
telegraph wires broken or down, he should make all 



282 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

possible speed to get to the place of danger without 
questioning his right to go, because it may not be 
possible to notify the proper foreman, and any delay 
may cause the company considerable loss. 
AT WRECKS. 

18. Whenever there is a wreck on the road, the 
foreman on whose section the accident happens, should 
keep an accurate account of the labor and material 
expended in repairing the damage done to the track. 
This account, together with the one of the damage 
done to rails, ties, spikes, bolts, or to the grade, should 
be put in the form of a report, and properly sent to 
the roadmaster immediately after the track is repaired. 
Time of men working at a wreck should be charged to 
that account on the work journal. 

WATER STATIONS. 

19. At all the water stations the section foreman 
should note the amount of water in tanks when pass- 
ing, and where wind engines do the pumping, they 
should be oiled often, and any defects in them or the 
pumps should be repaired, if possible, or reported by 
telegraph to the roadmaster. Section foremen and 
their men should pump water into the tanks whenever 
the wind engine fails to supply enough for trains. When 
it is necessary to pump by hand, foremen should com- 
mence to pump before there is any danger of the sup- 
ply in the tank being exhausted. Where steam pumps 
are to furnish the water for trains, section foremen 
should assist the man in charge to do any necessary 
repairing which he cannot do alone. Section foremen 
should always be ready and willing to get out their men 
day or night, to do work where their services would 
be valuable to the company. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 283 

TRESPASSERS. 

20. Foremen should see that no person is allowed 
to erect dwellings, stables or other buildings within 
the limits of the railroad company's 1 right of way, or 
in any other manner trespass on the company's 
property, without permission from the roadmaster or 
superintendent. 

* PROTECT FENCES. 

21. When burning grass, weeds or other material 
along the right of way, foremen should be very careful 
and protect the fence from fire. Never go away from 
a place where you have been burning rubbish, and 
leave any fire behind you, no matter how small the 
fire, or how harmless it may appear. It is always dan- 
gerous until extinguished. If part of a fence should 
accidentally be burned, or destroyed from any cause, 
the damage should be reported at once to the road- 
master, giving a correct list of the property destroyed, 
and location of same, so that material to repair the 
damage can be sent there promptly. 

RAILS OF DIFFERENT HEIGHTS. 

22. All rails of different heights, where they meet 
at a joint, should be connected with a step splice, and 
an iron shim should be put under the base of the low 
rail to give an equal bearing with the high rail. The 
iron shim should have slots punched in the sides so 
that spikes can be driven in to keep it secured in place. 
Instead of the splice it is better to use a proper form of 
improved step joint. 

EXPANSION BLOCKS. 

23 When it is necessary to use short pieces of rail, 
called expansion blocks, to close up an open joint 
between the ends of two rails, the holes in one end of 



284 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

the splices should be lengthened so that the joint can 
be full bolted and properly secured. The expansion 
block in a joint should always rest on the center of a 
sound tie. 

SWITCH STANDS. 

24. All switch stand targets should show white, 
when locked on the main track, also on all tracks 
running parallel to the main track, when connected 
at both ends. The switch target should show the red 
signal for an open switch when thrown for a spur 
track, and the switch should be thrown back to posi- 
tion on the through track, and kept locked, except 
when the spur track is in use. 

ABSENT FROM DUTY. 

25. Track foremen should never be absent from 
duty, unless by permission from their roadmaster, ex- 
cept in case of sickness or from, some other unavoidable 
cause, and in such cases the roadmaster should be noti- 
fied immediately. 

EMERGENCY RAILS. 

26. When it is possible to avoid it, it is recommend- 
ed that track foremen leave neither track material nor 
tools out along their sections over night. But on roads 
where snow troubles in the winter time, and section 
foremen have long sections, it is a good policy to have 
repair rails, with splices bolted to them, placed at con- 
venient distances, one or two miles apart, along the 
section, where they can be easily reached. These rails 
can be used in case of emergency to replace a broken 
rail in the track, and the splices will also be handy to 
replace broken ones, without the necessity of going 
perhaps several miles through snowdrifts, back to the 
station, for the material wanted. To prevent the rails 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 285 

or splices from being covered with snow, they should 
be secured on posts set with their top two or three feet 
above the surface of the ground. 

The condition of the rails as to wear should decide 
the number of emergency rails to be distributed along 
the track. Of course, where the rails in the track are 
badly worn, and broken rails are common, the number 
of emergency rails should be more numerous than 
where the track is newly laid, and the rails not much 
worn. 

EXTRA MEN. 

27. When you are about to have an extra force of 
men, larger than you have been used to working, take 
a little time to plan how you will distribute the men to 
accomplish the most good. Organization is one-half 
the work. 

A PROMPT REPLY. 

28. Whenever you receive a message from your 
roadmaster which requires an answer, don't wait or de- 
lay, but answer it promptly and correctly. 

GET ACQUAINTED WITH YOUR SECTION 

29. Every section foreman, as soon as he has been 
appointed to take charge of a section, should make 
himself thoroughly acquainted with every part of- the 
piece of road in his charge. Get the numbers of all the 
bridges and culverts on your section, and the distance 
from the station north, south, east or west. Get the 
brand of iron or steel, and if it is of different makes 
get the amount of each, and find when it was laid, also 
the length and kind of rails in your side tracks, number 
of panels of snow fence on your section, height of 
bridges from the ground, number of public crossings, 
signs, etc. Keep this account where it will be handy 
to refer to at any time, and keep it corrected from time 



286 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

to time. By doing this you will be able to answer any 
questions asked by officials of the road about any part 
of your section, and in case of a wreck or washout you 
will be able to locate that place at a moment's notice, 
and give a close estimate of the kind and amount of 
material necessary for repairs, in case of damage to 
track. 

THE PROPER WAY. 

30. Find out from your roadmaster the correct way 
of keeping your time, and filling out any other monthly 
reports that you have to send in to his office, and make 
them out as directed by him. You may have a printed 
form of some kind to fill out. Answer what is asked 
in the headings on form, but never omit or add any- 
thing. 

WORKING NEW MEN. 

31. If it is necessary to work new men on your sec- 
tion, who have never worked on track before, do not 
lose your patience if they are a little awkward in doing 
the work. If you can do so, pair these men with older 
hands. Take a little trouble to show them how you 
want the work done, in a manner that will give them 
confidence, and in most cases you will accomplish more 
good than by using the blow-and^-bluster method so 
common with some foremen. Remember you needed 
instructions once yourself. 

CLEAR WATER PASSAGES. 

32. No vegetable matter, grass, etc., should ever be 
allowed to accumulate under bridges, or near the 
mouth of culverts, or any other material that would be 
liable to catch fire easily, or stop the passage of water. 

NEAT STATION. 

33. Section foremen should keep the station 
grounds clean and neat, and all track material should 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 287 

be piled up in several lots. There should be no dis- 
order; there should be a place for everything, and 
everything- in its place. All stray links and coupling 
pins that are fit to use should be picked up, and left 
where they will be handy for trainmen when wanted. 
All of the station grounds not occupied by tracks, or 
covered with ballast, should be allowed to grow up in 
tame grasses. Such plots should be kept nicely 
trimmed around the sides and ends, with a view to 
having them of a regular form, and they should be lined 
parallel with adjoining tracks. No rubbish of any kind 
should ever be allowed to accumulate upon tsacks, or 
on the ground close to buildings. It should be taken 
away and dumped into places which need filling. Sec- 
tion foremen should not spend too much time working 
around the station, but do what is required there when 
other track work is not pressing, or when the weather 
or extra jobs interfere, and take up so much of the day 
that it would not pay to go out on the section. 
EXPANSION AT SWITCHES. 

34. Where stub switches are used it is often neces- 
sary to change the rails in the spring and fall to adjust 
the expansion at the head block to the change in tem- 
perature. If the rails' ends on each side of the switch 
could move freely in the angle bars and were laid in 
the first place with proper expansion, it would not be 
necessary to change rails. But on account of tight 
bolts and angle bars becoming rusted to the rail the 
line of rails are forced by the expansion toward the . 
head block, where no resistance to expansion is offered. 
Now if there are openings at the joints of rails near the 
switch, the bolts ought to be loosened until the expan- 
sion is absorbed. Then if the dirt is cleaned out of the 
joints and oily waste (which may be found around all 



288 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

sidings) is packed between angle bar and rail, the rails 
will contract and expand at each joint without forcing 
the rails toward the head block. But if no opening 
exists between rail ends and it is necessary to provide 
expansion a rail will have to be cut to do so. A 30-foot 
rail does not make a good slide rail because the web 
often splits through the bolt holes, and although half 
angle bars are often bolted on to prevent this, they do 
not prove effective, as the splitting does not seem to 
be caused by compression, but by the jarring and 
vibration set up by wheels running over low head 
blocks. • If this opinion is well founded, the half angle 
bars are useless, and by the wedge-like pressure they 
exert between the base and head of a rail they may 
assist instead of preventing the tendency to split. At 
any rate, if the end of rail resting on head chair has 
no bolt holes it will not spilt as readily as if it had. 
Therefore, a cut rail about 29 feet long will make a 
better slide rail than one 30 feet long, and where it is 
necessary to change it a battered 30-foot rail can be cut 
and substituted without loss of material. When chang- 
ing battered slide rails the opposing switch rails if bat- 
tered should be changed, also. 

A material point in preventing excessive expansion 
and contraction around switch consists in keeping 
good ties under joints and shoulders and spikes in 
every slot in the angle bars. No plan intended to pre- 
vent the creeping of rails will be successful if this point 
is slighted in any way. 

LOOK OVER THE YARD. 

35. Yard foremen should have a reliable man as 
trackwalker, who should examine all important 
switches daily. If his time will permit he should also 
look after and attend to keys in switch rods to frog and 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 289 

guard rail bolts, and if the yards be small he may also 
remove cinders from the tracks and attend to switch 
lamps. But it would be a mistake to put too much 
work on the trackwalker, as it would have a tendency 
to make him hurry over the yards and not give it a 
careful inspection. All large yards should have a 
trackwalker, a lamp man and one or two yard cleaners, 
and these men should never be taken from their work. 
LIFS ON STUB SWITCHES. 

36. On a road where stub switches are used, a 
foreman should see that no lips form where the mov- 
ing and lead rails meet; and that the track lines are 
true, no matter which way the switch is turned; To 
guard against having lips on the rails of stub switches"' 
where they meet in the head chair, the head rods on- 
the ends of moving rails should fit as tight as ; tliey^ 
can be driven on. No lost motion should ever be 
allowed to get in any switch connection.. Switch 
stands should be bolted to the head blocks, with the,, 
nuts on top. _.■ . ts . ; 

BENT SWITCH RAILS. 

37. Brakemen, when in a hurry, often pulP the-' 
switch lever over before the trucks of the last car of 
a train are off the moving rails of a switch. This 
makes a kink or bends the rails out of line, besides,., 
it often forms a lip at the joint in the head chair. 
The quickest way to fix a pair of moving rails, that 
have become bent as above stated, is to take out one 
of the rails and turn it end for end. This makes the 
bow pull in opposite directions, and in most cases 
will keep a switch all right until it can be repaired, 
or new rails put in.- When the bend in moving rails-, 
is toward the -side , of track from which switch turns, 
off, drive a stake at the ends of a couple of ties oppo- 



290 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

site the bent place in the rails, and drive spikes in 
these ties outside the bend part of rails to keep them 
in line. This will do temporarily when you have not 
the time to straighten the rails. 

THE MOVING RAILS OF STUB SWITCHES. 

38. The moving rails of stub switches should never 
be cut except when battered. The best method of 
keeping the moving rails in good condition is to have 
them of the correct length, and to keep the joints in 
the head chairs just open enough so that the switch 
can be thrown easily in warm weather. When the 
rails begin to contract in cold weather, a pair of exten- 
sion splices can be put on the connected ends of the 
moving rails, which will admit of expansion blocks 
of the proper size being put between the rails to fill up 
the space left by contraction. 

BATTERED SWITCH RAILS. 

39. Never take out one rail in a stub switch. When 
it becomes badly battered on the end, always take 
out at the same time the rails which meet it in the head 
chair. A good rail put in, and meeting a battered one, 
will soon be as bad as the one battered. 

TIES UNDER MOVING RAILS. 

40. The ties under the moving rails should be oak, 
sawed ties if possible, and as close together as they 
can well be tamped. None should be farther apart 
than 8 inches, and where a switch rod comes the ties 
should be closed up to within two and one-half or 
three inches of each other. This will keep switch rods 
in place. The object in having the ties close together 
under the moving rails is to keep the rails up to sur- 
face, and the cross rods square across the track in 
place; and in case of the trucks of a car or engine 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 291 

getting off the track at any other place on a railroad, 
the ties being close together will support the wheels 
from sinking between them, and car or engine can 
more easily and quickly be put back on the track with- 
out danger of bending the tie rods. 
BENT SPLICES. 

41. When a foreman receives old steel rails for 
repairs he should always examine the splices, especial- 
ly angle bar splices, and if they are bent in the center 
he should not use them again without straightening 
them. 

LINING DISCONNECTED TRACK. 

42. Foremen when lining track that has been 
washed out, or that has been disconnected at one end 
should never commence lining from the disconnected 
end. Always commence to line track from the end 
that is connected, and nearest to line, and work towards ' 
the end that is disconnected, and when you have moved 
it once, begin to line as before. 

Some foremen with a large gang of men spend sev- 
eral hours of valuable time at a washout, in a fruitless 
attempt to bring into line the tail end of a piece of 
track, and when the men could not throw it, cut it into 
rail lengths and carry into place. This could have been 
avoided if track had been lined in the way stated above. 
ORDERING TOOLS OR MATERIAL. 

43. Track foremen, when ordering tools or material 
for use on the track in their charge, should not make 
requisition for more than the amount necessary of 
either kind. A surplus of tools or track material on 
hand, which there is no prospect of putting in service 
soon, represents their value in cash lying idle or going 
to waste. 



/' 



292 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

K13EP MEN'S TIME CORRECTLY. 

44. It is a notable fact that the best track foremen 
keep the time of their men and other accounts correct- 
ly, and do everything, as the saying goes, "in ship 
shape," while the reverse can only be said of foremen 
who are careless or slovenly. The want of an educa- 
tion is only an excuse, and a foreman, by devoting a 
little of his time evenings to study, can soon write a 
good hand, and learn enough of figures to do all that 
is required of him while in the position of track 
foreman. 

DUPLICATE TIME BOOKS. 

45. All track foremen should carry with them a 
duplicate time book, and note on the same day any 
loss of time, or time earned by any of the men working 
under them. Keep a journal of the work performed 
by them each day, always charging the proper number 
of days labor done by each of them at each separate 
kind of work. This record of time and work performed 
should be transferred at the end of each day to the 
regular time book and journal of work, which is sent to 
headquarters at the end of each month. 

By following above instructions, a foreman will 
avoid making any mistakes, and will also be able to 
refer back to the time of his men, the kind of work 
done, and date of same, whenever called upon for in- 
formation by his superior officers. 

TRACK MATERIAL ACCOUNT. 

46. When foremen receive track material of any 
kind, and it is loaded on cars or unloaded from cars 
by them, they should check over everything carefully 
and count the pieces, number of rails, ties, etc.; also 
note 'the 'brand' or quality of the same, and take the 
number of the car. Keep this with your other ac- 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 293 

counts, no matter whether you have orders to do so or 
not, as you may be asked to give information on the 
subject a month later. 

PRINTED FORMS. 

47. Track foremen should read and thoroughly 
understand the printed instructions on all blank 
forms which the railroad company requires them to 
use, when making their reports. Many foremen are 
too careless in this matter, often omitting to put down 
the answers to printed questions which it is almost 
impossible for them to miss seeing when filling out 
the form. Occasionally a foreman will put on his 
work journal the number of ties received during the 
month, and at the same time fail to give the number 
of ties used during the month, or the number on hand; 
while the latter questions are there on the journal, as 
well as the question, "How many ties received." Then 
the roadmaster must write him a letter a second time 
and instruct him what he should do and wait for an 
answer. It is just likely that the foreman spoken of 
above will be changing a rail in a side track, or doing 
some other kind of work, which could be put off or 
delayed without danger, for a week or two, when at 
that time he should have been examining his track after 
a heavy storm. 

He has carried a time card in his pocket for months 
perhaps, and never informed himself that there was a 
rule on that time card which required himself and 
men to be out and examine the track on his section 
in stormy weather. Foremen of the kind mentioned 
do not hold a position long under any roadmaster, 
because they are not reliable; they need to be watched 
too closely and instructed too often in their duties. 



294 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

SECTION FOREMEN'S REPORTS. 

48. There is hardly a single railway company now 
in this country which does not furnish its foremen 
printed blanks for whatever reports they may be called 
upon to make. These blanks are generally made as 
simple as consistent with the nature of the report, and 
the foreman should study carefully the headings and 
printed instructions which will enable him to fill them 
out properly. It is most important that such state- 
ments are made at the proper time, that all entries are 
strictly correct and that they are made as concise as 
possible and in a legible manner. When such reports 
are completed they should be mailed to the proper 
officer. In regard to monthly statements of tools and 
materials received and used foremen will find it greatly 
to their interests if they retain a copy, of whatever they 
reported on hand the last of the month, so as to be able 
to fill the report for the succeeding month correctly. 
In fact it is advisable that each foreman keep a little 
book wherein he can note down all items of interest 
occurring on his section pertaining to the operation 
of the road. Such memoranda have often proven to 
be of great value to railway companies; besides that it 
enables foremen to make out duplicate reports in case 
the original has been lost or destroyed. 

SHIPPING TRACK TOOLS. 

49. Track foremen, when shipping tools or sending 
them to the repair shop, should always be particular 
to secure them in a neat package, so that it would not 
be possible for any of them to become separated or 
lost while in transit. The name and address of the 
repair shop foreman should be written plainly on the 
face of the shipping tag; on the back of the same tag 
the foreman should write his own name and address, 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 295 

together with a request that the tools be returned to 
him when repaired. 

A very convenient arrangement for securing tools 
together when shipping them, may be made by run- 
ning a piece of chain through the tools or around 
them, and locking with a spring key after passing one 
of the end links through one of the other links of the 
chain. The key should be flat and just wide enough 
to fit the links in the manner mentioned. Fine soft 
wire is superior to twine for securing tools or for 
tagging them. 

DISTANCE TO SET OUT DANGER SIGNALS. 

50. Danger signals should be set out a distance of 
not less than three thousand five 'hundred feet in both 
directions from the point where the track is impassa- 
ble for trains. This distance can be measured by 
counting one hundred and seventeen thirty-foot rail 
lengths, in the direction you are going to set out the 
signals; or when the telegraph poles are one hundred 
and fifty feet apart, the signals may be set out twenty- 
three telegraph poles distant each way from the point 
of danger. 

When flagging at obscure places, or in the vicinity 
of descending grades, where it is difficult to stop a 
train, the distance to set signals must be doubled or 
the telegraph operator at the next station should be 
informed, so trains could be held until track was 
cleared and safe for their passage. Where there is a 
sufficient force of men, and it is practicable, the flag- 
man should remain out with the signals until the track 
is repaired, or the train is stopped. In all cases during 
a snow storm, in foggy weather, or at night, the flag- 
man must remain out with the signals until all danger 
is passed. When the track has been repaired, and 



296 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

made safe for trains, the flags, torpedoes, or other sig- 
nals should be removed immediately. 

ALWAYS KEEP SIGNALS WITH YOU. 

51. A track foreman should always keep on his 
hand car, ready for instant use, a full supply of tor-^ 
pedoes, red flags, or red lanterns, so that if any acci- 
dent should render the track unsafe for the passage 
of trains, he would be prepared to protect them 
promptly. Flagmen sent out to patrol the track should 
not be allowed to proceed without having with them 
all the necessary signals to stop trains. The foreman 
should instruct them thoroughly in their duties, as he 
is responsible for them. 

The first duty of a track foreman when he finds a 
dangerous place in the track, no matter whether it is 
on his section or not, is to set out stop signals at once; 
'he should then go in the direction from which the 
next train is expected ,and report the trouble at the 
nearest telegraph office. 

TIME CARDS AND RULES. 

52. A track foreman should keep well posted on 
the time of all regular trains passing over his section. 
He should also study and understand thoroughly all 
the rules of the company, for which he is working, 
that relate to his work; and if in doubt about anything, 
ask an explanation of it from a superior officer. Read 
over all the rules on the time card at every time a new 
card is issued on your road. 

NOTE OF FLAGS. 

53. Whenever it is necessary for a foreman to use 
flags, instruct the man who goes to set the flag out, 
how to place it. Set slow flag on the engineer's 'side 
of train coming towards the place for which you are 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 297 

flagging; set the flag slightly leaning so that most of 
it can easily be seen, and set it just far enough from' 
the rail to clear engine and cars. A slow signal should 
be set out one-half mile or about ninety 30-feet rail 
lengths. 

STOP SIGNALS. 

54. When a reg flag or red light is used as a signal 
to stop a train, it should be set in the center of the 
track. Two torpedoes should be used together with 
the red signal day or night. The torpedoes should 
be placed sixty feet apart upon the rail, on the same 
side of the track, between the red signal and the ap- 
proaching train. 

LOOK OUT FOR SIGNALS. 

55. Foremen should always look for signals on all 
passing trains. Another section of the same train 
which has passed, or a special, may be following close 
behind; and the track foreman and his men should 
be fully informed, and keep well posted as to> the 
meaning of all signals displayed on passing trains. 

OBSTRUCTING THE TRACK. 

56. Track foremen should never attempt to use . 
the track so as to obstruct a regular train. All work 
which would make the track unsafe for trains should 
be finished, and the track ready before a regular train 
is due from the nearest station in either direction from 
where you are working. 

When working close to a station, foremen should 
have the track safe and clear before a train is due. 

No work, which would make a track unsafe, should 
be done on the time of a delayed passenger train, 
except in case of emergency, and then a trusty man 
should be sent out in the direction of the expected 



298 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

train, and take every precaution necessary to protect 
the train by proper signals. In case of bad weather, 
rain, snow or fog, he should be supplied with torpedoes 
and carefully instructed in their use. 
REPLACE SIGNALS. 

• 57. Trackmen finding danger signals along the 
track should leave them in the same position as found, 
and if the signals are injured so as to be unsafe, they 
should be replaced by good signals of the same kind, 
or a man should be left to guard the point. It is the 
duty of a track foreman, if he finds danger signals, 
to go forward and ascertain their cause, and to give 
assistance with his men, if the trainmen require their 
services. 

INJURED SIGNALS. 

58. All sign signals placed along the track for the 
guidance of trackmen or others (when injured or 
broken), should be repaired at once, and placed in 
position by the trackmen; and if they are destroyed 
or rendered useless, the foreman should at once make 
requisition on the roadmaster for new ones. 

COMPLY WITH THE RULES. 

59. Section foremen or others should use all sig- 
nals strictly in compliance with the rules of the road 
governing their use. Never set out a danger signal 
at a shorter distance than that which is specified in 
the rules of the road as correct, because a serious 
accident may be the result, if a train cannot be stopped 
in time. 

LOCATION OF WHISTLING POSTS AND SIGNS. 

60. Station whistling posts should be set one-half 
mile outside the switches, not from the depot, and on 
the engineer's side, the right hand side of the track 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 299 

to one approaching the station. Station mile boards 
should also be set one mile outside the switches, on 
the same side of the track as the whistling post. These 
two signs are used to warn the trainmen of the near 
approach to a station, that they may be able to get 
the train fully under control before reaching the sta- 
tion. The yard tracks at all railroad stations extend 
some distance each way from the depot. It will not 
do to place the signs above mentioned at the distance 
stated from the depot, for the reason that in big yards 
they would often be inside the switches. 

Whistling posts for highway crossings should be 
set one-fourth of a mile from the crossing, on the engi- 
neer's side of the track. Whistling posts or signs of 
any description should never be placed in a cut if it is 
possible to avoid it. It is always better to increase or 
diminish the distance to get them out of the cut. The 
distance should always be increased where there is a 
down grade, or when the law requires certain signs 
to be placed a specified number of feet or rods. This 
rule should also apply on sharp curves. All signs, 
which have a painted cross board on top of a post, 
should be set with the cross board at right angles to 
the track, so that the sign can be plainly seen by the 
trainmen for whom it was intended. The cross board 
on highway crossing signs should be parallel with the 
track, so that persons approaching the track from 
either side on the wagon road can see and read the 
painted sign. 

All posts and signs should be set firmly in the 
ground, and so far from the track, that if knocked 
down or blown over, they would not fall upon it. Never 
set any signs in a leaning or twisted position. High- 
way crossing signs should be set far enough away from 



300 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

the center of the wagon road, so that wagons loaded 

with bulky material, such as hay or straw, would not 

strike the sign post or the cross arm at the top of them. 

TRAIN'S DISRESPECT OF DANGER SIGNALS. 

61. Section foremen should report promptly to 
the roadmaster any failure on the part of trainmen 
to honor danger signals set out by himself or his men. 
If an engineer fails to whistle for brakes, and runs at 
a high speed past the point for which you have set 
.out a slow flag,-, or if a train runs past a dangerous 
place before stopping, for which you set out the 
necessary stop signals, you must report all the facts 
to the roadmaster without delay, giving the engine 
and train number, and the time they passed the place 
where you were working. Foremen should not over- 
look any neglect of duty by the trainmen in this mat- 
ter. Always remember that the safety of trains, and 
the lives of passengers and employes depends in a 
great measure upon a strict compliance with the com- 
pany's rules. 

LOOK OUT FOR TRAINS. 

62. Section foremen should always keep a sharp 
lookout for trains while working on track, while using 
hand cars, or while transferring material from one 
track to another on cars. Never trust too much in 
this matter to the men, as they are not held responsi- 
ble for accidents. To be on the safe side, a foreman 
should always be expecting a train, then he will be 
prepared for all extra trains or specials, of which he 
has no previous notice. 

ALWAYS BE PREPARED. 

63. Whenever it is necessary for a foreman to go 
to a wreck or washout, or to assist at any kind of work 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 301 

which calls him away from his own regular work, he 
should be prepared, having lanterns ready to light, 
tools all on the car, tape line in his pocket, etc. Don't 
start out half equipped with tools. When you find a 
place to fix up or repair, and there is need of tools, 
which you have not with you, you will have to send 
after them, perhaps delaying trains for an hour or 
more because of your carelessness. Don't go out on 
track and discover a broken rail, and at the same time 
find that everything necessary for repairing it is on 
hand except chisels, and they are at your tool house, 
seven or eight miles away. A foreman who is careless 
in these matters is generally so in everything else he 
does, although he may hold his position for a time. 
The roadmaster has him marked down as poor ma- 
terial, and will always remove him as soon as he can 
put a better man in his place. 

HAND CAR AND TOOL HOUSES. 

64. The hand car and tool houses of track fore- 
men should be kept outside the switches at yards, or 
wherever is the most convenient place. They should 
be located so that the men can get to and from work 
without being delayed by trains standing on the tracks. 
Tool and hand car houses and track supplies of any 
kind should always be placed a sufficient distance from 
the track, so that they will not obstruct the view of the 
trainmen, or be likely in case of accident to fall on or 
near the track. 

TELEGRAPH OFFICE REPORT. 

65. . When a section foreman's headquarters is lo- 
cated at a station, he should report at the telegraph 
office for orders and inquire for messages before going 
out to work 'every morning, and immediately after 
working hours in the evening. 



302 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

REMOVING HAND CARS FROM CROSSINGS. 

66. No material of any kind should ever be piled 
or placed on a highway where it crosses the track. 
Section foremen or others should never take off their 
hand or push cars and leave them on the highway or 
private wagon crossings unless it is absolutely neces- 
sary to do so to get out of the way of a passing train. 
The car should then be immediately put back on the 
track, and removed to a proper distance from the high- 
way. Section foremen should provide places along 
their sections, at convenient distances not less than 
ioo feet from highways or crossings, where they can 
take off their hand or push cars, and leave them when 
necessary. Obstructing highways by leaving thereon 
track material, hand cars, etc., has been the cause of 
numerous accidents, and claims for damages against 
railroad companies. 

THROWING SWITCHES. 

67. Track foremen should not be in the habit of 
throwing switches for trivial reasons. Although it is 
the custom on most railroads to allow section foremen 
to carry a switch key, they should not abuse this right 
by unlocking and throwing switches to move a hand 
or push car without a load from one track to another, 
or to accommodate trainmen who should do this work 
themselves. Hand cars and push cars, with a light 
load, can as well be moved from one track to another, 
where the rails come close together, without throwing 
the switch. Men employed on the section should not 
be trusted to throw a switch, except in the presence of 
the foreman. When a switch has been thrown on a side 
track, the person throwing it should not leave it until 
after throwing the switch back again on the main track 
and locking it. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 303 

Any foreman who would throw, or allow others to 
throw a switch from the main track, and leave it in 
that position while performing a piece of work, or 
until it suited his convenience to throw it back, should 
be discharged , and . he would be criminally liable if 
any accident should happen through his carelessness. 
Those intrusted with the operation of switches cannot 
be too careful. 

LEAVING HAND CARS ON TRACK. 

68. Some track foremen have a habit of leaving 
hand or push cars on the track, while cutting weeds or 
doing other work which requires frequent moving 
from place to place. This should not be done. The 
main track should be kept clear at all times, except 
when trackmen must occupy it to do necessary repairs ; 
at such times or when moving loads of material on cars, 
foremen should protect themselves with proper danger 
signals. 

Foremen should not leave hand cars on side tracks 
as they are liable to be smashed by trains switching, 
and cause a wreck at the same time. 

LOANING TOOLS, CARS, ETC. 

69. Track foremen should never loan to persons 
outside of the company's service any tools, hand car, 
velocipede car, push car, or track material of any kind 
which is intrusted to their care, without permission of 
their superior officers. Foremen themselves or their 
men should not use hand cars, velocipede cars, etc., on 
the track outside of regular working hours, unless in 
the company's service, or with permission from the 
roadmaster. 

Foremen who adhere strictly to this rule are very 
seldom requested by outside parties to grant them 
any privileges, and thereby save themselves annoy- 



304 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

ance. Track foremen should remember that company 
material of any kind, no matter how valueless it may 
appear to them, is still the company's property; and 
that they have no right to appropriate it for their own 
use, or to sell it to others, without authority from their 
superior officers. 

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF TIES. 

70. On a railroad where different varieties of ties 
are used in the track, the softer kind of wood should 
be used in straight track, and the hard wood ties 
should be used in the curves, and in sags between 
heavy grades where the speed of trains is very fast. If 
hard wood ties can be procured for a curve track they 
should not be mixed with soft wood ties in the same 
track, because the rails will in the course of time cut a 
bed in the soft wood ties, and thereby affect the sur- 
face of the track. At. the end of bridges and under 
switches are also good places to use hard wood ties, 
where they can be furnished for that purpose. White 
cedar is the best soft wood tie ; white oak the best hard 
wood tie. 

THE PLACE FOR TOOLS. 

71. Foremen should bring home every night and 
put in the tool house all tools which they have been 
using on track during the day. Never leave tools out 
on the section. Unscrupulous persons who live near 
the track or who may pass along there are very apt to 
appropriate any tools which they find along the track. 
Any loss of track tools should be reported by foremen 
to the roadmaster. 

CUTTING STEEL. 

../2. Whenever it is necessary to cut steel rails, track: 
foremen should instruct the men how to do. it properly. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 305 

All steel rails should be cut as accurately as possible 
as to length, and allowance for expansion should be 
deducted from the length of the rail. No careless work 
should ever be allowed, such as cutting the rail one 
inch or more short of the proper length. 

The line of the chisel cut around the rail should be 
continuous and square across the rail. Iron rails, as 
a general rule, need to be cut deeper than steel before 
they will break off. Hard steel, if cut deep, is liable 
to bcome tough at the cut, and will sometimes break 
off on either side of the cut, leaving a bad, unshapely 
end on the rail. To break off a rail at the cut, lift up 
the rail at the end nearest to the cut, and let the cut 
place fall over a piece of rail laid on a tie, or something 
solid across the track rails. Short pieces to be cut 
from rails may be broken off with the sledge. When 
cutting rails trackmen should not use a spike maul to 
strike the chisel, because this destroys the face of the 
spike maul, and splits pieces from the head of steel 
tools, making them worthless in a short time. A good 
sledge made on purpose for striking hard steel tools 
should be one of the tools on every section, and should 
be taken in preference to any other tool of the kind 
whenever necessity requires its use. 

THE BALLAST IN YARDS. 

73. The yard track at all stations inside the switches 
should be dressed off level with the top of the ties, 
both inside and outside of the track rails. When 
there is enough ballast the shoulder should be level 
and of sufficient width to allow trainmen or passengers 
room to walk along outside the ties. Where yard 
tracks are close together no rubbish, or obstructions 
of any kind should be placed on the space between 
them or allowed to remain there. 



306 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

EXECUTE PROMPTLY. 

74. When the foreman receives an order from the 
roadmaster to do any special piece of work, he should 
do it at once, and finish it up in the manner in which 
he is instructed. It is of the greatest importance that 
track foremen adhere strictly to this rule. Never let 
work wait to suit your convenience, nor do any work 
in a way contrary to that in which you are ordered 
to do it. 

PROTECT AGAINST FIRES. 

75. In the fall of the year when the weeds and grass 
along the right of way have become dead and dry, sec- 
tion foremen should take every precaution to protect 
the company's property, and that of persons living 
near the track, from damage by fire. Fire started by 
sparks from locomotives, or from other unknown 
sources should be looked after at once and extin- 
guished. Do not cease your efforts until you are sure 
all danger is past. All wooden structures, bridges, 
culverts, etc., should be examined as often as you pass 
them and any combustible matter which may be close 
to the timbers should be removed. Be particular, when 
burning rubbish or grass along the right of way, to 
always work with a favorable wind. Run no risks, 
and if you see a doubtful smoke along the track, take 
your men, go to it at once, and find out what has 
caused it. 

REPORT STOCK KILLED. 

j6. All stock killed or injured, and found lying on 
the right of way by the foreman, should be reported 
promptly to the roadmaster. Section foremen should 
always report the stock killed or injured. It is the duty 
of foremen to make an examination of the body of the 
animal found, find the owner if possible, and get the 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 307 

age and cash value of the animal. If it was struck by 
a train, give engine number, train number and time 
of the accident, if you know it. In your report give 
all other information which is likely to be of any value 
to the company you are working for. If the owner of a 
dead animal does not remove it from the right of way, 
the section foreman should take his men and bury the 
carcass after investigating the cause of accident, etc. 

Foremen have no right to appropriate to their own 
use (or to allow others to do so) the carcass or hide 
of any animal killed along the track. 
DAMAGE BY FIRE. 

77. When property along the right of way has 
been destroyed or damaged by fire, the section fore- 
man should go to such place at once, examine the 
ground thorougly, measure the distance from the cen- 
ter of the track to where the fire started, find the value 
of the property destroyed, make out an itemized esti- 
mate in his report ; and also state the direction of the 
wind when the fire was burning, and give a true ac- 
count of everything as far as he knows. Do not accept 
the statement of others until you know them to be 
correct. 

BE CAREFUL OF MATERIAL. 

78. When a track foreman lays or extends a piece 
of track, as soon as he has finished the job he should 
have every loose spike, bolt, splice, etc., picked up and 
taken care of. Track material lying around where a 
gang of men have been working is very good evidence 
that the foreman is careless about his work and waste- 
ful of the company's property. If loose bolts or spikes 
were picked up and taken care of until used, many 
thousands of dollars would be saved for the company in 
a year. 



308 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

Never allow old iron taken out of track, old ties, 
broken brakes, links, pins, etc., to accumulate on your 
section. Bring them into the station and ship to the 
points designated by the roadmaster, all except what 
is needed for use on your section. 

DO FIRST WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE. 

79. A track foreman should always have his work 
planned ahead. By giving close attention to the track, 
as he passes over it daily each way, a foreman will al- 
ways be able to see what needs to be repaired most, 
and it is hardly necessary to say here that such work 
should be done at once. Do not ride over the same 
low joint every day, a joint one-half inch out of gage 
or line, or pass the same broken joint tie or bolt hang- 
ing loose in the splices expecting to fix such places the 
next week or waiting until the roadmaster calls your 
attention to these things. The longer you wait, the 
more these little odd jobs increase in number, and at 
about the time you have set to do them you are called 
off to some place else. The work still increases during 
your absence, and in this manner things go on the 
year round. You are always behind, always worried ; 
you think the roadmaster hard because he urges you 
to hurry; you make excuses for yourself, as* for in- 
stance, that you were putting up a nice piece of track 
somewhere else on the section. But always remem- 
ber that if you had ten miles of the best track in the 
country, all good track except one rail length, and that 
rail was dangerous, the balance of your section, no 
matter .how good, would not save a train from getting 
wrecked, nor you from the blame that would justly 
fall upon you. In no other line of business does the 
old saying apply with greater force than on a railroad : 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 309 

"Never put off till to-morrow what should be done to- 
day." 

HOW TO DO WORK. 

80. Experience will teach a foreman that the secret 
of keeping a good track on his section lies in doing all 
work well. Slight no work. Do not surface up track 
to make a big .show for the present, but surface it as 
fast as it can be done to make track that will remain 
good a long time. Very smooth track, well lined and 
gauged, will stay good sometimes for years without 
much repairing. On the other hand, track that might 
be called good, with an occasional slight dip. in the 
surface, if there is much traffic over it, will soon be 
bad track ; because, where quarters or joints are only 
one-quarter of an inch low after the track is surfaced, 
the weight of an engine or loaded cars strike such low 
places with great force, and gradually increase the de- 
pression until the track becomes very rough and dan- 
gerous. If not cared for, low places in track knock 
out of gauge and 'line besides getting low. The same 
method of doing work will not answer always. Fore- 
men should adopt a method of doing work that will 
give the best results with the kind of material furnished. 

If there is only dirt for ballast, don't always be tell- 
ing what good track you could have with gravel or 
rock, but see how good a track can be made with dirt 
for a ballast. 

FOREMEN ON DUTY. 

81. When on duty, the foreman should always be 
with his men and assist them in doing the work. It 
is his duty also to instruct his men by word and ex- 
ample as to the proper manner of performing all the 
different kinds of work in which they are together en- 
gaged. 



310 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

ADOPT THE BEST METHOD. 

82. If you can improve on the old method of doing 
any kind of work, when you are not satisfied with the 
results of a trial, adopt a new plan. When you do any 
kind of work on track, and it does not give satisfaction, 
always try to find the remedy for its defects. Do not 
say it can't be done, but remember that a man who finds 
himself in a difficult position, if he has good judgment 
and a lively brain, can work out some of the most dif- 
ficult problems without any previous knowledge of 
them. Never take a slow method to do any kind of 
work that you can do as well in a quicker way. Don't 
forget that the world moves, but move with it. Try to 
learn something from the experience of others who 
are successful in the same profession as yours. A 
trifle of time gained soon amounts to a day, month or 
year, if multiplied many times. Take for example two 
men spiking track, one strikes across the rail when his 
partner tacks the spike in the tie, then both finish driv- 
ing their own spikes. Another man tacks his spike, 
and does all the driving on it himself without striking 
across the rail. On every spike he drives, the first man 
gains two motions which the second man loses, and 
at the end of a hard day's work the first spiker will be 
a long distance ahead of the second man, and with con- 
siderable less labor ; although to the inexperienced on- 
looker there would be no perceptible difference in their 
methods of working. 

Take for another instance the case of two foremen 
putting new ties in the track. One removes all the 
dirt or ballast from the center of the track to the out- 
side of the rails in order to get a number of ties into 
track at once ; the other foreman moves the material 
in the center of track back upon the new ties as fast as 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 311 

he puts in two or three ; and by that method the latter 
foreman saves himself and his men the labor of shovel- 
ing many yards of ballast from outside the track rails 
to fill the center of the track. To bring a section of 
track up to anything like perfection, the foreman in 
charge of it must look closely after all the work in its 
minutest details, arid allow nothing to go undone which 
would contribute towards improving the track. None 
but careless foremen will line up one side of a track well 
and then leave it without taking the kinks out of the 
gage side at the same time. A careless foreman will 
put a new tie into track without taking up to surface 
a low joint close to it. He will cut weeds past a joint 
with a bolt broken out of it without putting in a new 
bolt. He will make a trip over the section, and never 
notice a break in a fence, or if he does note it, will wait 
until he is notified by the roadmaster to fix it. It is 
likely that you will find the same foreman surfacing a 
piece of track without using a spirit level on it. Such a 
man is not fit to make a good laborer, much less a fore- 
man ; and the piece of road in his charge will soon 
run down if he be not discharged and replaced by a 
foreman who has a deshe to improve the track when- 
ever he does work on it. The work of a careless fore- 
man puts the roadmaster to watching him, because he 
informs on himself every day, while the careful, in- 
dustrious foreman makes a good, permanent job 
wherever he works, and the result is a first-class track 
where recently may have been a very rough section. 



CHAPTER XXIII.— MISCELLANEOUS. 

WORK TRAIN SERVICE. 

1. Trackmen who are in charge of work train 
gangs should make it their business to keep the men 
employed whenever the train is delayed in the regular 
work. There is always plenty to do along the track 
at any point. A good foreman will have his work laid 
out ahead, so there will not be any delays, except those 
which are unavoidable. 

When possible, it is always best to put a good prac- 
tical workman in charge of a gang of men on a work 
train. It is poor economy to have an inexperienced 
trainman in charge of a train and a large crew of men, 
as is often the case. When the position of foreman 
over the men and conductor of the work train is held 
by one person, the preference should be given to a 
trackman if competent to run the train, or to a man 
who has some experience in both branches of the 
service. 

TO WHOM RESPONSIBLE. 

2. Work train conductors and foremen of gravel 
pits, or of steam shovel outfits, should receive their 
working orders from, and be strictly responsible to 
the roadmaster, on whatever division of the road they 
are working at the time. Work train conductors 
should report daily to the roadmaster on blank forms 
furnished for that purpose, and, if required, they 
should also report to the division superintendent. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 313 

They should also make a lay up report to the train 
dispatcher every evening after quitting for the day, 
and inform him where the train will work the follow- 
ing day. 

Work trains should always lay up over night at a 
telegraph station. 

Conductors of work trains should see that the axle 
boxes of all the cars in their trains are properly 
packed, and oiled as often as necessary, and that all 
defects in rolling stock or track, where the train is 
working, are repaired. All accidents to cars, and any- 
thing which would interfere with or delay the work 
should be reported promptly to the roadmaster or 
superintendent, so that they may be quickly remedied. 
CARE OF INTERLOCKING SWITCHES. 

3. This branch of railroading is extremely intricate, 
and requires in the majority of cases a special depart- 
ment to handle it; but after the plant is erected and 
connected up the trackman's troubles commence. 

Interlocking, as the name implies, is something that 
is locked together with something else; or, in other 
words, if the switches controlled by the tower are set 
for one route, this will be indicated by the signals, and 
no change can be made until all the signals are back 
to the danger position, and then the switches can be 
thrown and the indications given accordingly. 

There are two general forms, one in which the 
switches, etc., are thrown by hand, or the manual; the 
other where the force to throw switches and signals is 
compressed air, which is operated by valves controlled 
by electricity; this is known as the Electro-pneumatic 
System. 

The simplest form of interlocking is where one 
switch stand is so connected that it operates the switch 



314 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

leading from a siding to the main line, and also a derail 
switch on the siding. 

Next in simplicity is the Vernon-Ellis hand inter- 
locking system. By this method movable point frogs 
in slip switches are so protected that they cannot be 
fouled while being thrown. 

In relation to placing of insulated joints in track, 
unless provided with a base plate, they should not be 
attached to frogs or heels of switches; if they are, these 
will be greatly weakened. 

One of the best insulated joints at present for this 
purpose is the Weber, illustrated in Figure 63. It is 
seen that the joint consists of two wooden fishplates fit- 
ting between head 
and flange of rail, 
securely bolted 
through web to a 
steel angle; the hor- 
izontal flange of this 
angle acts as a base 
support for the rails 
while the vertical 
flange provides a 
rigid support for the bolts, which keep the wooden fish- 
plates forced up to the rails, thus insuring true align- 
ment of rails. A thickness of fiber is laid on inside of 
steel angle to secure absolute insulation. The bolts are 
insulated by use of brass thimbles with a fiber inside. 
More Weber Insulated Joints are in use on American 
roads than any other kind. 

In using the track electric circuit in order to insure 
carrying the current from one rail to another, it is nec- 
essary to connect same by wires. To protect these they 
should be placed behind the angle bars, and trackmen 




MISCELLANEOUS. 



315 



should carefully handle such joints so as not to break 
these connections. If it is necessary to do any work by 
which these will be disturbed so as to break the con- 
nections, the proper authorities should be notified at 
once. 

After the plant has been put in place a considerable 
portion of the working of same falls on the trackmen. 
All running parts should be carefully cleaned and oiled 
daily. The bolts at heels of moving points should be 
so adjusted that an additional strain will not be brought 
on the levers in the tower. A very good method of 
accomplishing this is to use an angle bar, which is 
slightly bent, at the heels of movable point frogs and 




FIG. 64. 

switches. This can best be described by reference to 
the sketch, Fig. 64. 

In this the inside of the bar is bent from the middle 
toward the end of the moving point an amount equal 
to the throw at the end of the bar; then very long bolts 
are used with lock nut. This does away with any 
hinged device, and is absolutely safe. Also stops should 
be used at several places on the side of the moving 
point furthest from the stock rail, so as to do away 
with any lost motion. 

When slip switches are used it is better to have the 
joints at the heels of all moving points come on a tie, 
these acting as solid supports. 



316 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

All ties should be tamped where interlocking is 
used, so as to prevent any settling; and no connections 
should be attached to the ties except where absolutely 
necessary, as this renders renewals and changes much 
easier, there being nothing to disconnect or replace. 

The adjustment of all point rails should be given 
careful attention, so as to be sure that they always 
stand up to the stock rail. 

When connecting up switches with piping from 
towers, the person in charge should ascertain that the 
track is to proper grade and not liable to settle before 
the foundations for pipe lines are set, then these can be 
placed to a proper height. 

It is in times of a snow storm that the trackman is 
kept busy with switches thrown from a tower. All 
snow must be kept cleaned from the points, and also 
from all cranks, detector bars, locks, etc., the piping 
must be kept cleared, and all wires leading to signals 
freed from snow. In order to do away with the greater 
portion of this expense, where possible the piping and 
wires should be covered by boxing. 

In heavy snow storms trains should be cautioned to 
pass over switches, which are interlocking, with care, 
as it is often advantageous to disconnect certain parts 
to keep the plant running. For instance, detector bars 
being so long, get filled and thus render themselves 
hard to move; these can be disconnected. If the locks 
and switches, owing to the severity of the storm, are 
rendered useless from the tower, it is to the foreman's 
advantage to have these disconnected also, and throw 
the switches by emergency stands. This is an extreme 
case and should only be resorted to when a tie-up is 
imminent; and as trains then have to move on a hand 
signal they should use great precaution. These stands 
should be made as small and compact as possible and 



MISCELLANEOUS. 31V 

set up on ties ready to be connected in times of emer- 
gency. 

To decrease the expense account in snow storms, it 
is possible to use compressed air to clean the switches. 
This is especially recommended at electro-pneumatic 
stations. This method of getting rid of the snow is in 
the experimental stage at present, but great results 
may be expected in the future. 

There are places where the accumulation of snow 
during a storm, from piling it up, etc., often attains 
such size as to block traffic. At such points a pit can 
be constructed with steam pipes inside, so as to melt 
the snow; this will necessitate using men with hand- 
barrows to carry it from the places where it has been 
heaped up, to the pit. In the bottom of this latter is a 
drain to carry off the water. In this arrangement the 
steam pipes should be on an incline, so as to avoid the 
possibility of water lodging in them and freezing; and 
also the drain should always be kept clear. 
TRACK INSPECTION. 

4. There should be a well organized system of 
track inspection in force on every railroad, and it 
should be made efficient in proportion to the amount 
of traffic and the condition of the track. 

On roads where only ten trains a* day or less pass 
over track, an arrangement could be made to have 
the section foreman, on days on which his work would 
not call him to the end of his section, send a man over 
to examine the track from whatever point the gang 
were working and whenever there would be economy 
in it, the hand car could be run to the end of the 
section in preference to sending a man over on foot. 

It is bad policy to force the section foreman to go 
over all his track daily on long sections, during the 



318 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

summer months, when there are but few trains and 
plenty of work for him to do with a small crew of men. 
But in case of storms all track should be examined 
day or night. 

When a railroad is double tracked, or there are a 
large number of trains daily over a single track, a 
regular track-walker should be employed, whose busi- 
ness would be to go over the whole section once a day 
in each direction, and to be required to report to the 
section foreman, and also to the station agent or opera- 
tor, when there is a depot at both ends of section. 

The track-walker should so time his passage over 
the section as to be able to see all- the track or at least 
the most dangerous points, a short time ahead of pass- 
enger trains ; and when most of the trains run at night, 
his examination of tracks should be made altogether 
at night, the section crew or another track-walker 
looking after it in the daytime. 

During the winter months, when the ground is 
frozen solid, a rule obligating the section foreman to 
see all his section daily should be strictly enforced, 
because at that time of year the danger of accidents is 
greater, and the amount of general track work that 
can be done is much less than at other seasons of the 
year. 

During extremely cold or stormy weather is just 
the time that track most needs to be examined, and in 
order to insure inspection of track at least once a day, 
it is recommended that, when it is not possible to 
run a hand car, the section foreman with one of his 
men be allowed to ride one way on trains, against the 
storm, to the next station or to the end of his section 
and return back over the track on foot, carrying what 



MISCELLANEOUS. 319 

signals and tools would be necessary in case of an 
emergency. 

The conditions are so varied on different railroads 
and sometimes on small divisions of a railroad that 
each company can best organize a system of track in- 
spection which in the judgment of its officers would be 
best suited to its wants. The foregoing methods are 
only offered as suggestions from which something 
more useful might be designed. 

LONGER RAILS. 

5. Why should the length of a track rail be only 
30 feet if it can be demonstrated that there is economy 
in using a rail 36 feet in length or longer? A rail 12 
yards long, 80 pounds to the yard, weighs less than 
1,000 pounds, and as it does not require to be handled 
a second time until it has laid in the track a number 
of years, there can be but little objection to the in- 
crease in the weight of a rail with regard to the 
handling; and, further, when such a rail is taken out of 
the track after long service, to have the battered ends 
sawed off, it would still make a good, long rail; far 
ahead of the cut steel rails which are used second 
hand nowadays. 

The use of rails 12 yards long will take one-sixth 
of the joints out of track, which means one hundred 
miles of joints out of a track six hundred miles in 
length. This is no small item to consider, saving, as 
it does, 3,500 pounds of angle bar splices to the mile, 
and 360 bolts, not including those bolts used to replace 
broken ones during the life of the rails. There are also 
360 nut locks saved per mile, besides the labor required 
to put on these fastenings and keep the track in repair 
at the joints. Taking all things into account, a big 
saving could be effected annually in the cost of main- 



320 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

taining .any ordinary main track, and the amount 
which could be saved in the first cost would be more 
than a million dollars in laying all the tracks of one 
of the largest railroads. Every trackman knows that 
the rail joint requires more labor than any other part 
of the track, and for this reason alone it is advised 
making their number less. When considering the 
question, whether it is advisable to use a longer track 
rail, the only objection of any consequence that could 
be raised, would be on account of expansion and con- 
traction, and the extremes of temperature of the local- 
ity in which the rails are to be laid will determine to a 
great extent what should be the limit to the length of 
the track rail if used with the present joint fastenings. 

Investigation should be made to find out what is the 
greatest possible length of rail that may be used with- 
out injuriously affecting the track. A rail thirty-six 
feet long can be used with the joint fastenings now in 
use, in more than half of the United States, and a much 
longer rail may be used; for instance, below the frost 
line in the Southern States. 

The theory of a continuous track with the joints 
welded by electricity, and the expansion and contrac- 
tion controlled by split rails put in at intervals along 
the track, has many objections, as have also some 
other new methods which were proposed as a means 
of lessening the number of joints in tracks, while but 
few, if any, objections of any consequence can be 
brought against the method advocated in this para- 
graph, and it seems there can be no question that such 
a rail will make a smoother riding and a safer track 
than one 30 feet long, and effect a great saving in 
first cost, labor and maintenance. Experiments of rails 
45 and 60 feet long have been made and proven satis- 
factory as from the point of practicability. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 321 

HINTS TO SECTION FOREMEN. 

6. Track foreman should be respectful to his supe- 
rior officers without being servile, and when talking or 
writing to them he should show a confidence in him- 
self without making too much of an exhibition of self- 
conceit or stubbornness, either of which will only be 
awarded with their ridicule or contempt. A man who 
is placed over other men should have a will power 
strong enough to control them and maintain his 
authority without being either abusive or profane. To 
bulldoze an inferior is not the way to either instruct 
him or gain his respect 

Foremen who can keep good men, and secure more 
men when wanted, are more valuable to a railroad 
company than those who frequently discharge men 
and who seldom have help when it is needed. 

Try to gain the respect of your men and you will 
have faithful workers. To do this it is not necessary 
that you be too familiar with them. 

If you have a man working for you who will not do 
the work as you instruct him, discharge him and get 
some one who will. But do not work along in a 
groove, and think you have learned it all, and if any of 
your men suggest something which you know to be an 
improvement do not be ashamed to adopt it. 

Track foremen should learn the habit of studying 
out the best method of doing each piece of work on 
which they are engaged, and when practicable have 
the work planned out beforehand. The mind can 
often do more than the hands. 

A good track foreman will have a keen interest in 
his work, and be ambitious to show good results as 
well the last day he works for a company as when he 
was first promoted from the shovel. 



322 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

Foremen who are not prompt in .executing the 
orders of the roadmaster, and who often do work in a 
way contrary to that in which they have been in- 
structed, seldom hold a position long on any road. 
This kind of men, together with that class which fre- 
quent saloons and get drunk occasionally, constitute 
about nine-tenths of the section foremen who are 
discharged for cause. Roadmasters very seldom dis- 
charge a foreman for his want of knowledge about 
some particular piece of work, and they are always 
willing to give information as to the best method of 
doing work when asked for it. Whenever a track 
foreman begins to think his work is too hard and his 
pay is too small, or that the officers of the road are 
not using him right, he becomes careless and loses 
all interest in the work. That man should quit at 
once and go hunt a job in some other place, where he 
might be better satisfied and appreciated. Every track 
foreman should make a continued effort to elevate his 
profession and make it respectable. Be sober, honest 
and industrious and you will be successful. 
SECTION RECORD. 

7. The attention of trackmen generally, and espe- 
cially section foremen, is called to the importance of 
keeping a record of everything connected with the 
piece of track in their charge. Every foreman should 
know the length of his section, the amount of straight 
and curve track, the degree of every curve, the different 
brands of steel or iron rail, how much of each and when 
laid.. He should also know the number of cuts on his 
section and the amount of snow fence, if any, on each 
cut; the bridge and culverts numbers and highway or 
railroad crossings, and the distance they are from his 
headquarters; and many other facts of importance 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



323 



which are very valuable to assist a man in organizing 
work, and making comparisons, also that he may be 
in a position to^answer questions of his superior officers 
as to location of places and things without the neces- 
sity of making special examinations when the time 
cannot well be spared. The following example illus- 
trates a simple form for condensing the information 
referred to, and is a handy way for foremen to write it 
out on the pocket memorandum: 

SECTION NO. 10. 

Length of Section 6 miles, 1,000 feet. 

" " north side track 1,600 

' ; " house track : . . . 1,800 '-' 

" " south track 1,000 " 



BRIDGE NO. 


NO. OF BENTS. 


LENGTH 
OF SPAN. 


DISTANCE 
FROM STATION. 


50 

51 
52 


3 

8 
Iron 


30 feet 
100 " 
120 " 


2 miles 

2K " 
3M " 


CULVERT NO. 


BOX. STONE. 


IRON PIPE. 


DISTANCE 
FROM STATION. 


186 




1 




1% miles 

1% " 

2^ " 


187 


1 


188 


1 










CUTS, LENGTH 
IN FEET. 


HEIGHT 
ABOVE RAIL. 


PANELS OF 
SNOW FENCE. 


DISTANCE 
FROM STATION. 


One 352 

" 488 
" 1260 


4 feet 

8 " 

9 ' 


22 
30 \4 
89 " 


3 miles 

3K " 
4 


STEEL RAIL, 
AMOUNT. 


WHEN LAID. 


BRAND. 


EXTENDS 
FROM STATION. 


4 miles, 500 ft. 
2 miles, 500 ft. 


1895 

1899 


N. C, K. M. Co. 

75 lbs. 

Crawshaw 

85 lbs. 


West— 

From Steel to 

End of Section. 



324 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



AVERAGE DAY'S WORK FOR ONE MAN. 

7. The amount of labor given below can each be 
performed by one good man in one day, and will serve 
to show comparatively the relation existing between 
the labor of one man, and that of a large gang of men, 
at any of the different kinds of work specified : 

ONE MAN CAN 

Lay to place on a grade one-eighth of a mile of ties ; 

Spike one-tenth of a mile of track laid on soft ties ; 

Spike one-fourteenth of a mile of track laid on hard 
ties; 

Splice and bolt one-sixth of a mile of track ; 

Clean with a shovel one-eighth of a mile, average 
weeds ; 

Unload ten cars of gravel ; 

Unload eight cars of dirt; 

Load upon cars eighteen to twenty-four yards of 
gravel ; 

Load upon cars twenty to twenty-five yards of dirt ; 

Load coal into buckets for engines, 1.5 to 20 tons ; 

Unload coal cars into shed, 25 to 30 tons ; 

Put in a dirt ballast track twenty new ties ; 

Put in a gravel ballast track fifteen new ties ; 

Put in a stone ballast track eight to ten new ties ; 

Do labor equal to ballasting sixty feet gravel track ; 

Do labor equal to ballasting thirty-five feet stone 
track ; 

Chop two cords four-foot wood ; 

Make fifteen to twenty-five hard wood ties ; 

Make thirty-five to forty soft wood ties ; 

Sixty men can lay one mile of track in a day. 
TRACK BOLTS. 

8. The number of bolts in a 200-pound keg of track 
bolts, Hex. nuts ifxf, is as follows: 



SIZE OP BOLT. 


NQ. PER KEG. 


NO. OF BOLTS REQUIRED FOR ONE 
MILE OF TRACK. 




4 BOLTS TO JOINT. 


6 BOLTS TO JOINT. 


3% X% 

3Mx% 
4 x% 


240 

227 • 
218 


6 Kegs 
6* " 
6* " 


8* Kegs 
9£ " 
9| « 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



325 



Bolts of the size here given are the ones now most 
generally in use on standard gauge railroads. 
SPIKES. 

9. Owing to the difference in the shape of the heads 
and the general form of the body of the spikes manu- 
factured by the different companies who furnish rail- 
road supplies, it is not possible to make a table which 
would show the correct number of spikes, of all sizes, 
per keg of 150 or 200 pounds weight. The spikes most 
commonly used to spike narrow gauge and standard 
gauge tracks are as follows : 



SIZE. 


AVEEAGENO. PEK 
KEG OF 200 LBS. 


WEIGHT PEE TAED 
OF BAILS USED. 


NO. OF 
KEGS PEE MILE. 


4 x % 

±%* % 

5 x % 
5^x ft 


600 

525 

448 
3*8 


25 

35 

35 to 45 

45 to 75 


18 
21 

24 

28 



To ascertain the number of spikes in a keg, for any 
size of spike not mentioned in the table : Divide the full 
weight of a keg of spikes, less the keg, by the weight 
of one spike, and the quotient will be the number of 
spikes contained in the keg. 

NUMBER OF SPIKES. 

A 200-pound keg contains on an average 378 
spikes, 5^x9-16. 

The following table shows the number of ties, 30- 
foot rails, and feet of track that can be spiked in full, 
by different numbers of kegs of spikes, 5^x9-16 inches : 



NO. OF KEGS5|-X j 9 -, 



1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

6. 

7. 
14. 
28. 



NO. OF TIES. 


30 FOOT RAILS. 


FEET OF TRACK 


94^ 
189 


6h 
12 i 


190 

380 


283^ 
378 


. 1811 
25^ 


570 
760 


4721^ 
567 


31 i 

37 1 


945 
1135 


661^ 
1323 
2646 


*±ft 

88 £ 
176| 


1330(i^m) 
2640(%m) 
5280( 1 m) 



There is no allowance made in the above table for 
broken spikes. The number is often larger when lay- 



326 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



ing new track, and foremen may find it necessary to 
order one or more kegs than the amount given in this 
table. 

TONS OF RAILS REQUIRED FOR ONE MILE OF 
TRACK. 
Rule : — To find the number of tons (2240) of rails 
to the mile : Divide the weight per yard by 7, and mul- 
tiply the quotient by 11. Thus, for 56-pound rail, 56 
divided 7 equals 8, multiplied by 11, equals 88 tons of 
rails to one mile of single track. 



Weight of Bail 






Weight of Rail 






Per Yard. 


Tons Per Mile. 


Per Yard. 


Tons 


per mile. 


Pounds. 


Tons. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Tons. 


Pounds. 


12 


18 


1920 


64 


100 


1280 


14 


22 




65 


102 


320 


16 


25 


320 


68 


106 


1920 


18 


28 


640 


70 


110 




20 


31 


960 


72 


113 


320 


22 


34 


1280 


75 


117 


1920 


25 


39 


640 


76 


119 


960 


26 


40 


1920 


77 


121 




27 


42 


960 


78 


122 


1280 


28 


44 




79 


124 


320 


30 


47 


320 


80 


125 


1600 


33 


51 


1920 


81 


127 


640 


35 


55 




82 


128 


1920 


40 


62 


1920 


83 


130 


930 


45 


70 


1600 


84 


132 




48 


75 


960 


85 


133 


1280 


50 


78 


1280 


86 


135 


320 


52 


81 


16C0 


87 


136 


1600 


56 


88 




88 


138 


640 


57 


89 


1280 


89 


139 


1920 


60 


94 


640 


90 


141 


960 


62 


97 


960 


91 


143 





12. 



NUMBER OF CROSS-TIES REQUIRED FOR EACH 
MILE OF TRACK. 



DISTANCE FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE. 



NO. OP TIES. 



lfoot 
lfoot 
2 feet 
2 feet 
2 feet 

2 feet 

3 feet 



6 inches 
9 inches 

3 inches 
6 inches 
9 inches 



3520 
3017 
2640 
2348 
2113 
1921 
1761 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



327 



13. LENGTH OF RAIL AND NUMBER OF JOINTS, 
SPLICES AND BOLTS FOR EACH MILE OF 
TRACK. 





NO. OF BAILS 




NO. OF BOLTS 


LENGTH OF KAIL. 


OR JOINTS. 


NO. OF SPLICES. 


4 PEB JOINT 


20 feet 


528 


1056 


2112 


21 " 


503 


1006 


2012 


22 " 


480 


960 


1920 


23 " 


459 


918 


1836 


24 " 


440 


880 


1760 


25 " 


422 


844 


1688 


26 " 


406 


812 


1624 


27 " 


391 


782 


1564 


28 " 


377 


754 


1508 


29 " 


364 


728 


1456 


30 " 


352 


704 


1408 


31 " 


340 


680 


1360 


32 " 


330 


660 


1320 


33 " 


320 


640 


1280 


34 " 


310 


620 


1240 


35 " 


302 


604 


1208 


36 " 


292 


584 


1168 



14. WEIGHT PER YARD, PER 30 FOOT RAIL, AND 
NET TONS PER MILE. 



No. lbs- 
per yar d 


Weight of 


Tons of Iron or 


No. lbs 


Weight of 


Tons of 


a 30-foot 


Steel per Mile 


per yard 


a 30-foot 


Steel per Mile 


of rail- 


Rail. 


of Track. 


of rail. 


Rail. 


of Track. 






Tons. lbs. 






Tons. lbs. 


5 


50 


8 1600 


69 


690 


121 880 


30 


300 


52 1600 


70 


700 


128 400 


35 


350 


61 1200 


71 


710 


124 1900 


40 


400 


70 800 


72 


720 


126 1440 


45 


450 


79 400 


73 


730 


128 960 


50 


500 


88 


74 


740 


130 480 


51 


510 


89 1520 


75 


750 


132 


52 


520 


91 1040 


76 


760 


133 1520 


53 


530 


93 560 


77 


770 


135 1040 


54 


540 


95 80 


78 


780 


137 560 


55 


550 


96 1600 


79 


790 


139 80 


56 


560 


98 1120 


80 


800 


140 1600 


57 


570 


100 640 


81 


810 


142 1120 


58 


580 


102 160 


82 


820 


144 640 


59 


590 


103 1680 


83 


830 


146 1160 


60 


600 


105 1200 


84 


840 


147 1680 


61 


610 


107 720 


85 


850 


149 1200 


62 


620 


109 640 


86 


860 


151 720 


63 


63« 


110 1760 


87 


870 


153 240 


64 


640 


112 1280 


88 


880 


■ 154 1760 


65 


650 


114 800 


89 


890 


156 . 1280 


66 


660 


116 820 


90 


900 


158 800 


67 


670 


117 1840 


100 


1000 


176 


68 


680 


119 1365 


■ 







328 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



One pound more or less in weight per yard of rail 

makes a difference of one ton and 1,520 pounds in the 

weight per mile. The table No. 14 will enable any 

track foreman to see at a glance the exact amount of 

iron or steel required per mile of track, if he knows the 

weight per yard of rail which he is using, or about to 

order for his division. For smaller amounts than one 

mile (if using 30-foot rails) multiply the number of rails 

required by the weight of rail given in second column, 

and divide 2,000 pounds to reduce to tons. 

15. LUMBER TABLE-SHOWING NUMBER OP FEET, 

BOARD MEASURE, CONTAINED IN A PIECE OF 

JOIST, SCANTLING OR TIMBER OF THE SIZES 

GVEN. 





LENGTH IN FEET OF JOISTS, SOANTLINO AND TIMBEE. 


BIZB IN INCHES. 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


42 


44 


45 


2x 4 


8 

12 
16 
20 
24 
12 
18 
24 
30 
36 
16 
24 
32 
40 
48 
36 
48 
60 
72 
64 
80 
96 
100 
120 
144 
168 
196 


9 
14 

19 
23 
28 
14 


11 
16 
21 

27 
32 
16 


12 

18 

24 

30 

36 

18 

27 

36 

45 

54 

24 

36 

48 

60 

72 

54 

72 

90 

108 

96 

120 

144 

150 

180 

01 fi 


13 

20 

27 

33 

40 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

27 

40 

53 

67 

80 

60 

80 

100 

120 

107 

133 

160 

167 

200 

240 


15 

22 

29 

37 

44 

22 

33 

44 

55 

66 

29 

44 

59 

73 

88 

66 

88 

Hi 

132 

117 

147 

176 

183 

220 

9R4 


16 

24 

32 

40 

48 

24 

36 

48 

60 

72 

32 

48 

64 

80 

96 

72 

96 

120 

144 

128 

160 

192 

200 

240 

288 


17 

26 

35 

43 

52 

26 

39 

52 

65 

78 

35 

52 

69 

87 

104 

78 

104 

130 

156 

139 

173 

208 

217 

260 

•319 


19 
28 
37 
47 
56 
28 
42 
56 
70 
84 
37 
56 
75 
93 
112 
84 
112 
140 


20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

90 

120 

150 


28 

42 

53 

70 

84 

42 

63 

84 

105 

126 

56 

84 

112 

140 

168 

126 

168 

210 

250 

224 

280 

336 

350 

420 

504 

588 

686 


29 

44 

58 

74 

88 

44 

66 

^8 

110 

132 

58 

88 

118 

146 

176 

132 

176 

220 

265 

234 

294 

352 

366 

440 

528 


30 


2x 6 


45 


2x10 


60 
75 


2x12 


90 


3x 4 


45 


3x 6 


21 24 
28, 32 
35 40 
42 : 48 
19 21 


68 


3x 8 


90 


3x10 


113 


3x12 


135 


4x 4 


60 


4x 6 


28 

37 

47 

56 

42 

56 

70 

84 

75 

93 

112 

117 

140 

168 

196 

229 


32 

43 

53 

64 

48 

64 

80 

96 

85 

107 

128 

133 

160 

192 


90 


4x 8 


120 


4x10 


150 


4x12 


180 


6x 6 


135 


6x 8 


180 


6x10 . 


225 


6x12 


168180 


270 


8x 8 


149 
187 
224 
233 
280 
336 
392 
457 


160 
200 
240 
250 
300 
360 
420 
490 


240 


8x10 


300 


8x12 


360 


10x10 


375 


10x12 ; 


450 


12x12 


^nn 


12x14 


224 252 


2801308 


3361364 


6161630 


14x14......... 


261 


294 


327 


359 


392 


425 


716 


I735 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



329 



A cubic foot of air at o° C. 

weighs in pounds=o.c8o728. 
I litieof Hydrogen at o° C, 

760 mm., weighs 0.08969 g 
1 Paris ft.= 0.32484 metres. 
1 " line= 2.2588 mm. 
1 Eng. ft.= 0.30479 m. 
1 Gr. mile= 7.4204 kilom. 
1 Eng. " = 1.60929 kilom. 
1 Rhen.ft.= 0.31385 m. 
1 metre = 3.2809 Eng. ft. 

= 0.62138 Eng.mile 
= 0.22017 gal. 

= ! 7 6 I33 P ints - 

= 2.20462 lbs. avoir. 
I 543 2 35 grains. 



1 kilom. 
1 litre 
1 " 

1 kilogr. 
1 gramme 



1 metre =39.37 in. 
1 U.S. gal. =231 cu. in. 



16. SOME USEFUL NUMBERS 

Ratio of circum. of ciicle to 
diam. = 3.1415926. 
Dyne in grammes = .00102. 
Poundal in dynes = 13825. 
Erg in gramme centimetres — 
.00102 
Foot-pound in kilogramme- 
metres = .13825. 
Kilogramme - metre in foot 
pounds =7.23308. 
Foot-poundal in ergs=42i39o. 

V 2 = 1. 4142. 

V~T= 1 73 20 - 

V 5 = 2.2361. 
A cubic foot of water at 4 C. 

weighs in pounds = 62.425. 
A cubic toot of water at i6%° 
C. weighs in pounds = 62.32 1 . 

17. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Measures of Length, English. 
1 mi. =8 fur. = 320 rods == 1760 yards = 5280 fr. = 63360 in. 

Measures of Length, French. 
1 kilo. = 1000 m. = 10000 dcm. = 100000 cen. = 1000000 mm. 

Measures of Surface, English. 
1 acre = 4840 sq. yd. = 43560 sq. ft. 

Measures of Surface, French. 

1 sq. H km. = 10 sq. D km. = 100 sq. m. — 1000 sq. dcm. = 

10000 sq. cm. = icocoo sq. mm. 

1 are — 100 sq. metres. 

Measures of Volume, English. 

I cu. yd. = 27 cu. ft. = 46656 cu. in. 

Measures of Volume, French. 
1 cu. metre == 1000 cu. dcm. = 1000 litres = 1000000 ccm. 

English Weights. 
I lb. avoir. = 16 oz. = 256 dr. = 7000 gr. 
I oz. = 437.5 gr. 
French Weights. 
1 kilo. g. = 1000 g. = 10000 dcg. = 100000 eg. = 1000000 mg. 



330 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 

Miscellaneous. 
Lineal feet X .00019 = miles. 
Square inches X .007 = sq. ft. 
Cu. inches X .00058 = cu. ft. 
Cu. It. X 748 — U. S. gallons. 
Cu. in. X .004329 = U. S. gallons. 
U. S.gals. X .13367 = cu. ft. 
Cu. ft. of water X 62.5 = lbs. avoir. 
Cu. in. of water X .03617 == lbs. avoir. 
Metres X 3.2809 = ft. 
Ft. X o 3048 = metres. 
Sq. in. X 6.451 = scm. 
Scm. X 0.155 — S( h in - 
Cu. in. X 16.386 = ccm. 
Ccm. X .06103 = cu - in - 
Litres X 61.027 = cu. in. 
Oz. avoir. X 28.35 — grammes. 
Lb: X 453-593 — grammes. 
Gr. X 15.432 = grains. 
Kilog. X 2.2046 = lbs. avoir. 

18. TENACITY. 



Copper, drawn 40.3 

Copper, annealed 30.54 

Iron, drawn 61.10 

Iron, annealed 46.88 

Lead, drawn 2.07 

Lead, annealed 1.80 

Platinum, drawn 34.10 

Platinum, annealed. . . .23.5 



Silver, drawn 29.00 

Silver, annealed 16.02 

Steel, drawn 70.00 

Steel, annealed. 40.00 

Steel cast, drawn 80.00 

Steel cast, annealed. . . . 65.75 

Tin, drawn 2.45 

Tin, annealed 1.70 



The above table gives the. weight in kilogrammes 
required to break a wire of the substance imm. in 
diameter. 

19. MENSURATION RULES. 

Area of triangle = base X % altitude. 

" parallelogram = base X altitude. 

" trapezoid = altitude X ~% sum of parallel sides. 
Circum. of circle == diameter X 3.1416. 
Diameter of circle = circum. X .3183, or circle divided by 

3Hi6. 
Area of circle = diameter squared X .7854, or radius squared 

x 3-1416. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



331 



Area of ellipse = product of diameters X 7854. 
Areaofreg. polygon = sum of sides X % apothem. 
Lat. surface of cylinder = cir. base X alt. 
Contents of cylinder = area base X alt. 
Surface of sphere = diam. X circum. 
Contents of sphere = diameter cubed X .5236. 
Surface of pyramid ) 

" " cone \ = CIr " base X ^ s ant hei S ht - 
Contents of cone = area base X Y$ alt. 
Surface of frustum of pyramid or cone = 

sum of cir. of bases X J^ slant height. 
Contents of frustum of pyramid or cone = 

Yi alt. X sum of areas of bases and sq. rt. of product of 

these areas. 

20. VELOCITY OF SOUND AT 32 DEGREES F. 



Feet per 
second. 

Air 1,093 

Ash 15,314 

Brass 10,885 

Caoutchouc 197 

Carbon monoxide 1,106 

Carbon dioxide 856 

Cedar 16,503 

Chlorine 677 

Copper 11,666 

Elm 13,516 

Ether 3,801 

Fir 15,218 

Glass 16.488 

Gold 5,717 



Feet per 
second. 

Hydrogen 4,163 

Iron 17,822 

Lead 4,030 

Maple 13,472 

Oak 12,622 

Oxygen 1,040 

Pine 10,900 

Silver 8,553 

Steel 17,182 

Tallow 1,170 

Turpentine at 24 deg. . 3,976 

Walnut 15,095 

Water at 8.1 degrees. . 4,708 
Wax 2,811 



21. MELTING POINTS. 



Degrees C. 

Antimony 425 

Beeswax 62 

Bismuth 270 

Brass 1020 

Bromine —24.5 

Butter 33.0 

Copper 1054.0 to 1200 

German silver 1093 

Gold 1250.0 



Ice 



Degrees C. 

Phosphorus 44.2 

Platinum 1775 to 2000 

Potassium 62.5 

Rose's metal 94 ' 

Silver 1000 

Sulphur 115 

Sodium 97.6 

Stearic acid 69.9 

Stearine 60 



0.0 Spermaceti 



49 



332 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



Iridium 1950.0 

Iron 1500.0 to 1600 

Lard 33.2 

Lead 334 

Margaric acid 59.9 

Mercury —38.8 

Parafflne 38—52 

22. DENSITIES OP V 

Acetic acid 1.060 

Agate 2.615 

Alcohol, absolute 0.806 

Alcohol, common 0.833 

Alum 1.724 

Aluminium 2.670 

Amber 1.078 

Antimony, cast 6.720 

Apple-tree wood 0.790 

Arsenic . 8.310 

Ash, dry .. 0.690 

Ash, green 0.700 

Asphalt 2.500 

Basalt 2.950 

Beech, dry 0.690 to 0.800 

Beeswax . 0.964 

Bell-metal 8.050 

Benzine 0.72 to 0.740 

Benzole 0.899 

Birch 0.690 

Bismuth, cast 9.822 

Blood 1.060 

Boxwood 1.280 

Brass, cast 8.400 

Brass, sheet 8.440 

Brick 1.0 to 2.000 

Bromine 3.187 

Butter 0.942 

Calcium chloride 2.230 

Camphor 0.988 

Carbon disulphide. . . . 1.293 
Carbon dioxide, liqiiid 0.947 

Cedar, American 0.554 

Chalk 1.8 to 2.800 

Cherry-tree 0.710 

Chestnut 0.606 

Chloroform 1.525 



Tallow (fresh) ....... 43 

Tin 235 

Turpentine —27 

Wax, white 65 

Wood's metal 68 

Zinc 433 



ARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Ice 0.917 

Iceland spar 2.723 

Iron, bar 7.788 

Iron, cast 7.230 

Iron, wrought 7.780 

India-rubber 0.930 

Iodine 4.950 

Iron pyrites 5.000 

Ivory 1.820 

Lard 0.947 

Lead, cast 11.360 

Lead, sheet 11.400 

Lignum vitae . 1.333 

Lime, quick 0.843 

Limestone 3.180 

Logwood 0.913 

Magnesium 1.750 

Mahogany 0.56 to 0.852 

Maple 0.755 

Marble 2.720 

Mercury 13.596 

Milk 1.032 

Molasses 1.426 

Mortar, -average 1.700 

Naphtha 0.848 

Nitric acid 1.38 to 1.559 

Oak, American red. . . . 0.850 
Oak, American white. 0.779 
Oak, live, seasoned... 1.068 

Oak, live, green 1.260 

Oil, castor 0.970 

Oil, linseed 0.940 

Oil, olive 0.915 

Oil, turpentine 0.870 

Oil, whale 0.923 

Paraffine 0.824 to 0.940 

Petroleum 0.836 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



333 



Clay : 1.920 

Coal, anthracite. 1.2G to 1.800 
Coal, bitum. . . .1.270 to 1.423 

Cobalt 8.800 

Concrete, ordinary- • • • 1.900 
Concrete, in cement. . 2.200 

Cork 0.240 

Copper, cast 8.830 

Copper, sheet 8.878 

Deal, Norway 0.689 

Diamond ; . 3.530 

Earth 1.520 to 2.000 

Ebony 1.187 

Elder 0.690 

Elm 0.579 

Elm, Canadian 0.725 

Emery 3.900 

Ether - 0.736 

Emerald 2.770 

Feldspar 2.600 

Fir, spruce 0.512 

Fluor-spar 3.200 

Galena 7.580 

German-silver 8.432 

Glass, flint 3.000 to 3.600 

Glass, crown 2.520 

Glass, plate 2.760 

Glycerine 1.260 

Gold 19.360 

Gypsum, crys 2.310 

Granite 2.650 

Graphite 2.500 

Gun-metal 8.561 

Gutta-percha 0.966 

Heavy spar 4.430 

Honey 1.450 

Human body 0.890 

Hydrochl. acid, aq. sol 1.222 



Phosphorus 1.830 

Pear-tree 0.680 

Pine, red, dry 0.590 

Pine, white, dry 0.554 

Pine, yellow, dry 0.461 

Pine, pitch 0.660 

Pitch 1.150 

Platinum wire 21.531 

Poplar, common 0.389 

Porcelain, china 2.380 

Potassium 0.865 

Quartz 2.650 

Rock-salt 2.257 

Saltpeter 2.100 

Sand, quartz 2.750 

Sand, river 1.880 

Sand, fine 1.520 

Sand, coarse. 1.510 

Silver, cast. 10.424 to 10.511 

Slate 2.880 

Sodium 0.970 

Steel, unhammered . . . 7.816 

Sugar, cane 1.593 

Sulphur, native ... 2.033 

Sulphuric acid 1.840 

Tallow 0.940 

Tar 1.015 

Tin, cast 7.290 

Tourmaline, green.... 3.150 

Vinegar 1.026 

Water, at 100 degr. C . 0.958 

Walnut 0.680 

Water, sea 1.027 

Was, white 0.970 

White metal, Babbitt. 7.310 

Willow 0.585 

Zinc, cast .. 7.000 



23. ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY. 

Berlin, lat. 52°3o' ..... 981.25 cm. 

Greenwich, " 5i°29' . . . . ■ . 981.17 " 

Paris, " 48*50' . . . . . 980.94 •< 

New York, " 40° 43' . . . • „ . 98019" 

Washington," 38° 54' . . . . . 980.06" 



§34 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER. 



Latof45° 980.61 cm 

Equator, . . . ■ „ . . . . 978.10 " 
Pole, 983.11 " 

24. COEFFIENTS OF EXPANSION FOR 1 DEGREE 

BETWEEN ZERO AND 100 DEGREES C. 

Linear. 



Aluminium 0.00002221 

Antimony 0.00000980 

Bismuth 0.00001330 

Brass 0.00001875 

Bronze 0.00001844 

Copper 0.00001866 

Ebonite 0.00008420 

Glass 0.00000861 

Gold 0.00001466 

Graphite 0.00000786 

Iron, cast 0.00001125 

Iron, wrought... 0.00001220 



Lead 

Marble 

Paraffine 

Pine 

Platinum 

Sandstone, red. . . 

Silver 

Sulphur 

Steel, tempered. . 
Steel, unt'mp'r'd. 

Tin 

Zinc 



0.00002799 
0.00000786 
0.00027854 
0.00000496 
0.00000886 
0.00001174 
0.00001943 
0.00006413 
0.00001322 
0.00001095 
0.00002730 
0,00002976 



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INSULATED JOINT. 
For Electric Track Circuit: 



THE ROADMASTER 
AND FOREMAN. 



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OVER 100 ILLUSTRATIONS. 



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Introduction by J. M. MEADE, Resident Engineer, 

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